History of Mirrors

Since about 8,000 years ago humans have known and utilize mirror. At that time, people take advantage of that shiny piece of stone like obsidian to be used as a mirror. One evidence is the discovery of obsidian mirrors in Anatolia region, Turkey, which is expected to be made around the year 6000 BC. Discovery of mirror polished stones were also found in Central and South America are expected to be made around the year 2,000 BC.

Technology to create a mirror and then developed with the discovery of a mirror made of polished copper were made in Mesopotamia in 4000 BC and in Egypt in 3000 BC. In China, found a mirror made of bronze, which were made in 2000 BC. Metal-coated glass mirror invented in Sidon, Lebanon in the first century AD. The back of the mirror glass with gold leaf is also mentioned by the author of the Roman named Pliny in his Natural History book, which is composed around the year 77 AD The Romans also developed a technique that creates a rough mirror of glass blowing is coated with molten tin.

Like a parabolic mirror and a convex mirror concave mirror was first described by physicist named Ibn Sahl of Arabic in the 10th century AD Ibn al-Haytham discussed concave and convex mirrors in both cylindrical and spherical geometries, do some experiments with mirrors, and solved the problem to find the point on a convex mirror at which a ray coming from one point is reflected to another point. And in the 11th century, clear glass mirrors have been produced in Al-Andalus.

During the early Renaissance, European manufacturers perfected a superior method of coating glass that have been found previously using a mixture of tin and mercury. The exact date and location of the discovery is unknown, but is estimated in the 16th century, in Venice, a city known for its expertise making glass, a center of mirror production by using this technique. Glass mirrors from this period was once a luxury item that is very expensive and only used by the rich and the nobility.

Justus Liebig find a mirror reflective glass as used today in 1835. The process involves depositing a layer of metallic silver onto glass through the chemical reduction of silver nitrate. The process of coating glass with a reflective substance (silvering) is adapted to mass produce mirrors. Nowadays, mirrors are often produced by depositing the aluminum (or sometimes silver) directly onto the glass substrate.

How it Works Mirror

Most modern mirrors consist of a thin layer of aluminum is covered with shattered glass. This mirror is called "old rear" (back silvered), where surface bounces seen through shattered glass. Coating the mirror with a mirror-resistant glass making, but it reduces the quality of the mirror for additional biasan front surface glass. The mirror like reverse about 80% of the incoming light. The back of the mirror is often painted completely black to protect the metal from erosion.

While optical telescopes and other equipment, using mirror "the elder" (front silvered), where the reflecting surface is placed on the glass surface, which gives a better quality shadows. Sometimes also used silver, but mostly uses aluminum mirrors, which reflect short wave better than silver. The old mirror reflects 90% to 95% of the incident light. Because of rusted metal in the presence of oxygen and moisture, the old mirror surface needs to be replaced over and over to maintain quality. Another way is, of course, using the vacuum to put this mirror.

The History of the Thermometer

Before thermometers discovered, astronomers and physicists made great efforts to be able to create a tool that can measure the temperature. They know that temperature can make the substance expands. To that end, they use the substance as a benchmark measure of expansion in measuring temperature. But the discovery of the temperature gauges can not be easily created. The experts need to find the right agent, the right technique and the right scale is also to be able to measure it carefully. Later in 1593, Galileo Galilei tried to make measurements using a thermometer with expansion of air. Tool created by Galileo is then called termoskop. Although still relatively very simple, but this is a rough tool can measure the temperature.

Galileo Termoskop

Termoskop Galileo consists of glass balls of chicken eggs is associated with a closed length of pipe filled with water. In a number of the load suspended in the liquid. Generally, the load is attached to the sealed glass bulb containing a colored liquid for aesthetic effect. When the temperature changes, the density of the liquid in the cylinder also change which causes the ball to move glass raised or sunk to reach the position where the density is the same as the surrounding liquid or interrupted by other glass balls. When the density difference is very small glass balls and terurutkan such a way that the less dense is above and that terapat under, it can form a temperature scale.

Nobility in Florence Tuscany, Ferdinand II, creating a better thermometer. The air inside the glass bulb is replaced with wine or alkhohol. The second fixed point is the temperature at the coldest winter and summer temperatures are hottest. Since the discovery Amontons and Ferdinand, then many emerging proposal on the benchmark point. There are proposing the use of a single point of reference only, but some are proposing two benchmark points.

Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit

After reading the history of science that tells Amotons discoveries about the boiling point of water is fixed then Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit thermometer compelled to make in order to see the natural phenomenon in the field of temperature. Fahrenheit thermometer repeat the design and use of mercury as a substance empirically. In 1714, Fahrenheit has created a mercury thermometer. This is a really thermometer carefully and thoroughly. The scale on the thermometer is known as degrees Fahrenheit.

Later on, note the use of mercury in measuring devices temperature has several advantages over the use of water. Among them:

• Mercury temperature range is quite wide. Mercury freezes at -40 ° C and boils at 360 ° C.
• The transition metal elements silvery, so it can be easily seen as shiny.
• Mercury does not wet the capillary Diding on the thermometer so that the measurement is being conscientious.
• Mercury is quite a regular expansion of the temperature to the temperature.

In 1730, Rene Antoine de Reamur Ferchault constructing a new temperature scale known as scale Reamur. In his experiments he used a mixture of wine and water in comparison 4 and 1. In 1742 Swedish astronomer at the University of Upsala, Anders Celsius dividing the distance in between the freezing and boiling points of water into 100 parts. Even this scale is known to scale Celsius or centigrade scale. On the Celsius scale, 0  C is the point at which water freezes and 100  C is the point at which water boils. Scale is the most commonly used in the world.

In 1848, Scottish physicist, Lord Kelvin, menyataka importance of the phenomenon of temperature-volume relationship or the Law of Charles and Gay-Lussac. For example, when we studied the relation temperature volume at various pressures. At a specified pressure value, the plot of volume against temperature produces a straight line. By extending the line to zero volume, obtained at the intersection with the temperature axis value of -273.15 C. At other pressures, different straight line obtained from the plot between volume temperature, but also obtained zero temperatures at the same volume, namely -273.15 C. (Raymond Chang, 2005: 130)

History of The World Cup

History's most prestigious football competition in the world called the World Cup or the FIFA World Cup official name blaze in 1904 in Paris. The idea of ​​the establishment of the World Cup continued when the first Congress of the Fédération Internationale de Football Association. In 1928, results of operations and president of the union FIFA football France (FFFA), Jules Rimet and Henri Delaunay colleagues, participants of the congress in Amsterdam decided to implement the idea.

History of the World Cup a year later where FIFA blaze formally prepare a championship called the World Cup or the World Cup takes place every four years. FIFA congress on 17-18 May 1928 at the Barcelona, ​​Spain, Uruguay has the support of 23 Congress participants to host the first World Cup ambitions rid Hungary, Italy, Netherlands, Spayol, and Sweden. The first World Cup was known as the Jules Rimet Cup.

Jules Rimet trophy was made by French artists, La Fleur Abel, octagonal the simbol earth held by the god named Nike Victory (ancient Greek god). This trophy is made of gold, weighing 3.8 kg and has a height of 35 cm. Then the first FIFA World Cup was held in Uruguay and lasts from 13 to 30 July 1930. 13 countries participated - six from South America, five from Europe and two from North America. Uruguay beat Argentina 4-2 in front of 93,000 spectators in Montevideo and also become the first country to win the trophy.

World Cup history had stopped in the event of World War II. Championship was halted during the previous 12 years, and started again in 1950 in Brazil. Jules Rimet trophy was stolen while on display at Stampex Exhibition at Westminster Central Hall, London when in 1966 World Cup in England, but he was found seven days later by a dog named Pickles.

While the World Cup itself is not the first international soccer championship. Amateur football became a part of the Olympic program for the first time in 1908. In 1909 in Torino organized a football tournament named Sir Thomas Lipton Cup. Italy, Germany, and Switzerland to send their most prestigious clubs to the tournament but the English Football Association (FA) rejected an offer to participate in the championship.

History of the World Insurance And Insurance Indonesia

1. History of Insurance in the World

Around the year 2250 BC the Babylonians lived in the valley of the Euphrates and Tigris (now a region of Iraq), at the time when a shipowner requires funds to operate a boat or doing a trading business, he can borrow money from a merchant (creditor) with using the ship as collateral with the agreement that the owner of the vessel is exempt from paying its debts if the ship safely to the destination, in addition to a sum of money in return for the risks borne by the lender. These additional costs can be considered similar to "cash premium" which is known in the insurance now. In addition to the ship which is used as collateral, can also be used as collateral in the form of goods cargo (Cargo). Such transactions are called "RESPONDENT / A CONTRACT".

2. History of Insurance in Indonesia

Insurance business in Indonesia during Dutch colonial rule and our country at that time called the Netherlands East Indies. The existence of insurance in our country as a result of the success of the Dutch in the plantation sector and trade in the colonies. To ensure its survival, then the insurance is absolutely necessary. Thus pera.suransian efforts in Indonesia can be divided into two periods, namely the colonial period until 1942 and the period after World War II, or the time of independence. At the time of the Japanese occupation army for about three and a half years, almost no recorded history of the development. Insurance companies in the Dutch East Indies during colonial era it is:

The companies founded by the Dutch

The companies that are branch office of the insurance company headquartered in the Netherlands, the UK and in other countries. With a run monopoly system in the Dutch East Indies, the development of insurance in the Netherlands East Indies trade is limited to the activities and interests of the Dutch, British, and other European nations. And the role of insurance benefits have not been recognized by the public, especially by indigenous communities. This type of insurance has been introduced in the Dutch East Indies at that time was very limited and mostly consists of fire insurance and freight. Motor vehicle insurance still play a role, because the number of vehicles is still very little and only owned by the Dutch and other foreign nation. In colonial times not recorded a single insurance company. 

In addition to the Commercial code article 246, also in the Act - Act No. insurance. 2 Article 1 of 1992 mentioned the insurance or coverage is an agreement between two or more parties, where the insurer binds himself to the insured, by accepting the insurance premiums to provide reimbursement to the insured for loss, damage, or loss of expected benefits, or legal liability to third parties which may be suffered by the insured, arising from an uncertain events, or provide an event that payment is based on the death or life of an insured person.

In conventional insurance insurance company called the Insurer, while the people who buy the insurance product called the insured or the policy holder, the insured pays a sum of money called a premium to buy products that are provided by insurance companies. Insurance premiums paid by the insured to the insurance company income, in other words, the transfer of ownership occurs fund premiums from the insured to the insurance company. If the insured at risk in accordance with the stipulated in the contract of insurance, then the insurance company has to pay a sum of money called the sum assured to or are entitled to receive it. Conversely, if the insured until the end of the contract in which case the risk of not having insurance the contract ends, all the rights and obligations of both parties ended. From the above it can be concluded that the displacement of the financial risk in insurance terms is called the transfer of risk from the insured to the Insurer.

Example, when someone buys a home fire insurance policy to stay he would pay the money (premiums) that have been determined by the insurance company, at the same time the insurance company will bear the financial risk in the event of a fire on the residence. Another example in the life insurance, when someone buys a life insurance (term insuransce) with a contract period of 5 (five) years with a sum assured of 100 million dollars, then he must pay the premiums set by the insurance company (ie 500 thousand dollars) per year , meaning that if the insured dies during the above agreement, the heirs or assigns will earn money from the insurance company $ 100 million, but if the participants lived until the end of the agreement then he will not gain anything. Terms of the sharia, the transaction example above can be categorized as contract tabaduli (exchange or buying and selling), but flawed because there are elements of gharar (uncertainty), which is not clear when the policyholder will receive the sum assured as it is associated with the unfortunate person (actually years first, second or not at all to be alive at the end of the agreement).

History of Short Stories

Short stories found in the world's oldest palm leaf sheet is estimated dituis around the year 3000 BC. In addition it was also found that flash at the tombstones of old graves in Egypt. In Greece, the classic short story in the form of a fable is a story that the perpetrator of the humanized animals. This fable began circulating in the community about 500 BC but only neatly written in the second century. In the eighth century, was born the classic verbal serial short story of 1001 Nights. Themed Romanesque classic short story was first published in book form in 1704 in France.

Modern short stories emerged as their own genre in the early 19th century. Early examples of the short story collection includes tales Brothers Grimm (1824-1826), Evenings on a Farm Near Dikanka (1831-1832) works of Nikolai Gogol, Tales of the Grotesque and Arabesque (1836), and the works of Edgar Allan Poe Twice Told Tales (1842) by Nathaniel Hawthorne. At the end of the 19th century, the growth of magazines and journals give birth to a strong market demand for short fiction between 3,000 and 15,000 words in length. Among the well-known short stories that appeared in this period is "No Room. 6" by Anton Chekhov.

In the first half of the 20th century, a number of leading magazines such as The Atlantic Monthly, Scribner's, and The Saturday Evening Post, all published short stories in each publication. Demand for short stories so great quality, and paid for the stories were so high that F. Scott Fitzgerald repeatedly turned to short story writing to pay his numerous debts.

Demand for short stories by the magazine reached its peak in the mid-20th century, when in 1952 Life magazine published Ernest Hemingway's long short story long (or novella) Old Man and the Sea. The issue containing this story sold 5,300,000 copies in just two days. Since then, the number of commercial magazines that publish short stories have been reduced, although some famous magazines like The New Yorker continues to load. Literary magazines also provide a place for short stories.

Since that's the short story and popularize modern short story was born. The work was published in various print media, especially the literary magazine. Short story evolved rapidly since the mid-nineteenth century, not only in Europe but also in the United States. Washington Irving (1783-1859), Edgar Allen Poe (1809-1849) and Anton Chekhov (1860-1904) was named as the father of the short story by critics the world.

In France, the birth stories spearheaded by Guy de Maupassant (1850-1893). Guy is also the father of the short story includes world. Guy who had studied at the seminary, known expert in arranging the plot written in a language that is very beautiful and gives the impression of softness. One short story titled The Neckale worldwide. The short stories collected in the book collection entitled Contes du jour et de la nuit (1885). In addition there are 11 other book of short stories, which were published only in a span of five years. Then he wrote the novel and the script drama.Ia very productive, in the midst of busy life in the political arena.

Anton Chekhov, the Russian writer, even a first author who wrote short stories are very short. Chekhov is known as a difficult writer emulate, except by Guy de Maupasssant. The greatness of the work lies in its short Chekov. But his most short was still intact, complete and beautiful. In addition, he also wrote novels, plays and film scripts. While touted as Edgar Allen Poe wrote a short story writer who is able to type well-made short-story is very beautiful and intact. Short story called The Cask of Amontillado extremely famed. Another with Washington Irving, the appeal lies in his short work of the theme that deemed capable of entertaining its readers. He raised social issues to be a short story spiced humor. The author diligently to study, especially the study of the history of Europe and America.

In Indonesia, the old Malay literature, the actual writing of this short story models have been initiated by Haji Ibrahim from the Sultanate Biting, Riau since 1865. However, when the genre is not got a meaningful response from the public especially literary circles, so it can not compete with the saga, poems and rhymes. Therefore, short stories are not experienced significant development. It was only when entering the 20th century, photographers began to progress very well that at the time of New Poet (1930) and developed rapidly since the time of independence. Short story writer figures in Indonesia, among others Sitor Situmorang, Abd Sani, Iwan Simatupang, Budi Darma, WS Rendra, Umar Kayam, Subagio Sastrowardoyo.