History of Photography

Understanding and Definition of Photography

Photography ( from English : photography , which is derived from the Greek word is " Photos " : light and " Grafo " : Painting ) is the process of painting / writing using light media .

Photography means a process or method to produce an image or images of an object by recording the reflection of light on the objects on light sensitive media . The most popular tool for capturing this light is the camera . Without light , there is no photograph that can be made .

To generate proper light intensity to produce an image , use the help of a measuring instrument lightmeter . After obtaining the proper size of the lighting , a photographer can adjust the light intensity by changing the combination of ISO / ASA ( ISO Speed ​​) , diaphragm ( aperture ) and shutter speed ( Speed) . The combination of ISO , Diaphragm & Speed ​​referred to as Exposure ( Exposure ) . In the era of digital photography in which the film is not used , then the speed of the film that was in use evolved into Digital ISO .

history of Photography

History of Photography started in the 19th century . 1839 is the year of the birth of photography . At that time , in France officially declared that photography is a technological breakthrough . At that time , recording two- dimensional as the eye can be made permanent .

History of photography began long before the AD . In the 5th century BCE (BCE ) , a man named Mo Ti observes a phenomenon . If the wall of a dark room there is a small hole ( pinhole ) , then on the inside of the chamber will be reflected in the view of the outside of the room in reverse through the hole . Mo Ti was the first to realize the phenomenon of the camera obscura .

Centuries later , many are aware of and admire this phenomenon , namely Aristotle in the 3rd century BC and an Arab scientist Ibn al Haitam ( Al Hazen ) in the 10th century BC , which seeks to create and develop a tool that is now known as a camera . In 1558 , an Italian scientist , Giambattista della Porta called the " camera obscura " in a box that helps artists capture shadows image .

Name of camera obscura was invented by Johannes Kepler in 1611 . Johannes Kepler makes the camera portable design that is made like a tent , and gave the name of the device camera obscura . Inside the tent was very dark except for a bit of light captured by the lens , the image formed in the state outside of the tent on a piece of paper .

Various studies conducted starting in the early 17th century , the Italian scientist - Angelo Sala use sunlight to record a series of words on a plate of silver chloride . But he failed to maintain a permanent image . Around the year 1800, Thomas Wedgwood , a British experiment to record a positive image of the image in the camera obscura lens , the results are very disappointing . Humphrey Davy conduct further experiments with silver chloride , but also meet the same fate , despite being caught by the camera obscura images without lens .

Finally , in 1824 , a French artist lithography , Joseph - Nicéphore Niepce ( 1765-1833 ) , after eight hours of clicking - exposed view from his bedroom window , through a process called heliogravure ( process works similar lithograph ) on top of a metal plate coated with bitumen , successfully gave birth to a somewhat blurred image , also managed to maintain a permanent image . He continued his experiments until 1826 , is what eventually became the actual early history of photography . The resulting image is now stored at the University of Texas at Austin , USA .

Study after study continues to pata dated dated August 19, 1839 , the opera stage designer who is also a painter , Louis - Jacques Mande ' Daguerre ( 1787-1851 ) was crowned as the first to successfully create photo real : a permanent image on a sheet of copper plate silver coated with a solution of iodine were exposed for one and a half hours of light directly heated mercury ( fluorescent ) . This process is called the daguerreotype . To make the image permanent , washable plates salt solution and distilled asir . January 1839 , Daguerre actually want to patent it . However , the French government thinks that the findings should be shared around the world for free .

Photography then develop very quickly . Eastman Kodak company through , George Eastman developed the photography by creating and selling a roll of film and the camera box is practical , in line with developments in the world of photography through improved lens , shutter , film and photographic paper .

1950, to facilitate shooting on a Single Lens Reflex camera then start to use the prism ( SLR ) , and Japan also began to enter the world of photography with a Nikon camera production was followed by Canon . 1972 Edwin Land Polaroid camera findings began to be marketed . Polaroid camera capable of producing images without going through the process of developing and printing film.

History of Invention Cells

In 1665 , Robert Hooke observed incision of the stem Quercus suber cork using a microscope . He found the empty spaces in the thick walled observations . Robert Hooke called the empty spaces with cellulae term means cell . Robert Hooke discovered cells are the cells that have died cork . Note the Fig. Since that discovery , some scientists are racing to find out more about the cell .

Cork cells ( top ) and Robert

Dutch scientist called Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723) designed a single -lens microscope small . Microscope was used to observe the straw soaking water . He found that moving organisms in the water , which was then called bacteria . Antonie van Leeuwenhoek was the first to discover the living cell .

Leeuwenhoek microscope

The development of discoveries about cells induce the development of the perception of the cell . From this he went on theories about the cell . Some theories about the cell as follows .

a. Unity Is a cell or Structural Unit of Living Things

This theory was put forward by Jacob Schleiden (1804-1881) and Theodor Schwan ( 1810-1882 ) . Schleiden 1839 , the German botanist , make observations of the microscopic plant cells . At the same time Theodor Schwan observations of animal cells . From their observations draw the following conclusion .

1 ) Every living thing is composed of cells .

2 ) The cell is the smallest structural unit of living beings .

3 ) a single -celled organism is composed of a cell , other organisms are composed of more than one cell called a multicellular organism .

b . Functional unit cell As Sentient Beings

Max Schultze (1825-1874) stated that protoplasm is the physical basis of life . Protoplasm is not only the structural part of the cell, but also an important part of the cell as a place of ongoing chemical reactions of life . Based on this theory comes the cells which states that the cell is the functional unity of life .

c . As the unit cell of Living Growth

Rudolph Virchow (1821-1902) Omnis cellula ex found cellulae ( all cells come from cells previously ) .

d . Heredity unit cell As Sentient Beings

Science and technology promotes discovery units of inheritance contained in the nucleus , the chromosomes . In the chromosomes are genes that are hereditary units . Through this discovery came the theory that the cell is the unit of heredity of living beings . Findings that support the development of the cell theory as follows .

• Robert Brown ( 1812 ) , the Scottish biologist , discovered a small object floating in the liquid cell which he called the nucleus .
• Felix Durjadin ( 1835 ) , assumed that the most important part of the cell is the cell fluid is now called protoplasm .
• John Purkinye ( 1787-1869 ) , the first to propose the term protoplasm to name the egg embryonic material .

History of the Meter

Meter is the basic unit of length in the SI system . This unit is defined as the distance light travels in a vacuum ( vacuum ) during 1/299.792.458 seconds . Meter abbreviated using the symbol m . Meters can be written as in English meter , or meters with the American spelling .

It should be noted that the definition of the meter as the basic unit of length is dependent on the definition of the second , as indicated by the above equation .

History

Meter was originally defined by the French Academy of Sciences ( Académie des sciences ) as 1/10.000.000 distance along the Earth's surface from the North Pole to the Equator meridian through Paris in 1791 , and on 7 April 1795 the French use the meter as an official for a long distance . The uncertainty in the measurement of the distance causes the International Bureau of Weights and Measures ( BIPM - Bureau International des Poids et Mesures ) set 1 meter as the distance between two etched line platinum - iridium on the rods stored in Sevres , France in 1889 .

In 1960 , when the laser was introduced , the General Conference on Weights and Measures ( Conférence Générale des Poids et Mesures / CGPM ) to change the definition of the meter - 11 as 1,650,763.73 times the wavelength of light orange-red spectrum of krypton - 86 atom in a vacuum chamber . In 1983 , the BIPM set the meter as the distance traveled by light in vacuum 1/299.792.458 sec ( speed of light is set at 299,792,458 meters per second ) . Because of the speed of light in a vacuum is the same in any course , this definition is more universal than the long- distance ukurlilit earth or certain metal rod . Therefore , if the metal rod was lost or destroyed , the length of a standard meter can still be repeated in any laboratory . Besides, he could in theory be measured more precisely than the other sizes .

The size of the meter turns fluctuate throughout the ages have always been revised by the scientists of each era. Here's his review :

May 8, 1790 - The French National Assembly ( French National Assembly ) set 1 meter is equal to half the length of a pendulum which cover the period of one second .

March 30, 1791 - The French National Assembly approved the proposal of the French Academy of Sciences stated that 1 meter is equal to 1/10.000.000 times the distance along the surface of the earth from the north pole to the equator meridian through Paris .

1795 - Created a temporary restriction of 1 meter brass .

December 10, 1799 - The French National Assembly set a limit of 1 meter platinum made ​​on June 23, 1799 and deposited in the National Archives , is used as a final standard .

28 September 1889 - General Conference on Weights and Unit ( General Conference on Weights and Measures - CGPM ) was held for the first time and determine the 1 -meter as the distance between the two platinum finish line on the rod with a mixture of 10 % iridium, measured at the temperature of the melting point of ice ( 0 degrees Celsius ) .

October 6, 1927 - 7th Conference CGPM adjusts the definition of 1 meter for distance , at a temperature of 0 degrees Celsius , between the axes of the two central lines marked on the panel yan platinum - iridium prototype , this panel becomes the subject of a standard atmospheric pressure and support on two cylinders at least 1 cm in diameter , symmetrically placed in a horizontal plane at a distance of 571 millimeters from each other.

October 14, 1960 - Conference on the 11th CGPM set 1 meter is equal to 1,650,763.73 times the wavelength in a vacuum with respect to the transition between the 2p10 and 5d5 quantum levels of the krypton - 86 atom ( Kr - 86 ) . ( From other sources that mention 1 meter is equal to 1,650,761.73 times the wavelength of orange light emitted by the atoms of the gas krypton - 86 ( Kr - 86 ) in the vacuum chamber on an electric stepping . )

October 21, 1983 - Conference on the 17th CGPM set equal to 1 meter distance the speed of light ( in a vacuum ) in Waku 1/299.792.248 second interval .

2002 - International Committee on Weights and Unit ( The International Committee for Weights and Measures - CIPM ) considers the meter to the unit proper length and thus recommends that limits the definition of " short enough length ℓ with the effects predicted by general relativity can be ignored for realization of uncertainty " .

History of Newspapers in the World

Some of the observations contained in a medium or pronounced. Usually we think of news as a particular kind of historical reality, which may be described analytically. It is a mystification of the subject. If journalists are experts in something, your audience, and not other aspects of reality. Judging from "pheomenologically," is the news that did in today's paper or on the news. There are now 188 countries, today $ 5 million, and thousands of things that "happen". Only those who actually do the work in the news. Tomorrow will have its own story, so that the event will never be denied the news. Of course it could be part of the reconstruction of the history of our time then. One would think that in this case that the reporters just blew it - if you really believe that the news is of the same nature as the story. But the news was not about the story, actually, but the benefits, when the editors think clearly, and newspaper publishers think clearly from the beginning.

The definition should come from general use, and this is what we mean by "news" when confused with the notion of such important news or news reported. There is no such thing as the press reported, because the news was not natural.

Those who hope that the news will keep you informed about the world's great powers should consider the possibility that the power can be defined as the ability to be saved from the news. In addition, the elite can be defined as a group that is able to monopolize certain types of information, and keep it out of circulation. Even to this day all the important news transmitted orally, the elite. If a big story is what gives a person an advantage over others, then it follows that valuable news is something you have to pay a lot for, one way or the other. What remains is converted into media content.

It is true that for centuries the media attention has helped residents to monitor and challenge the elite. Over time, this attention has eroded the power of the elite few, but only if the press itself became big business elites with their own secrets. What is the balance shown in the new distribution of power, and if the public has a right to be included in the power structure because consciousness news, should get more attention than it has.

The origins of the Press

Historical newspapers often dramatic chapter of human experience going back some five centuries. In Renaissance Europe handwritten newspaper circulated privately among merchants, for information about everything from wars and economic conditions to social customs and characteristics of the "human interest". Pioneers first printed newspaper appeared in Germany in the 1400's in the form of news pamphlets or broadsides, often highly sensational in content. Some of the most famous of these reports atrocities against Germans in Transylvania by sadistic veovod Drakul Tsepes called Vlad, who became Count Dracula of later folklore.

In the English-speaking world, the early ancestors of the newspaper is corantos, news pamphlets produced only small when important events occur. The first title published in The Weekly Newes from 1622. This was followed in 1640 and 1650 by a number of different titles in the same format Newsbook. First true newspaper in English is London Gazette of 1666. For the generation which was only officially sanctioned newspaper, though many periodical titles in the media is at the end of this century.

Started in the United States

In the U.S., newspapers (newspaper) first appeared in Boston in 1690, entitled Publick Occurrences. Published without authority, which was immediately suppressed, publisher arrested, and all copies destroyed. In fact, it was forgotten until 1845, when the only surviving example known to be found in the British Library. The newspaper was the first successful Boston News-Letter, begun by postmaster John Campbell in 1704. Despite receiving large subsidies from the colonial government the experiment was a failure in the short term, with very limited circulation. Two other studies were introduced in 1720, in Philadelphia and New York, and the fourth power gradually established in the new continent. On the eve of the War of Independence, about two dozen papers published in all the colonies, although Massachusetts, New York, and Pennsylvania will remain the center of American printing for many years. Colonial newspaper article, brilliantly conceived by revolutionary propagandists, is the main force affecting public opinion in the United States of reconciliation with England to full political independence.

At the end of the war in 1783, there are forty-three newspapers in print. The press plays an important role in the affairs of the new nation, many more newspapers started, representing all shades of political opinion. He did not force the principles of journalism largely preventable libelous by modern standards, reflecting the rough and tumble of political life of the republic as rival factions push for power. Ratification of the Bill of Rights in 1791 to ensure the freedom of the press and U.S. newspapers began to take on a central role in national affairs. Growth continued in all countries. In 1814 there are 346 newspapers. In the populist Jackson, 1830, advances in technology led to an explosion of printing and paper daily growth, the emergence of "Penny Press", but it is now possible to produce a newspaper that can be sold for only a penny per copy. Previously, the newspaper is the province of the wealthy few, reading and writing. Subscription price for one year, usually about a week of labor wages, must be paid in full and "always in advance." This sudden availability of cheap materials, interesting reading is an important stimulus to achieve nearly universal literacy for granted in America.

Industrial Revolution

The industrial revolution such as changing every aspect of American life and society, dramatically affected newspapers. Both the number of documents and their paid circulation continues to increase. 1850 Census recorded 2526 title. In 1850, a powerful giant presses appeared, able to print ten thousand complete papers per hour. At this time the first "pictorial" weekly newspapers emerged, but the illustration of the first major events in the news, as the wood carvings of the correspondents or sketch drawn from a new invention of photography. During the Civil War unprecedented demand for timely, accurate news in the dynamic changed American journalism, hardhitting in national life. Reporters called "special", became a public favorite and idols of young people around the world. Many accounts submitted by the brave adventurers battle stands today as the definitive history of its people.

The news does not stop growth in the years following the war. A staggering 11,314 different items listed in the 1880 census. In 1890 circulation figures of one million copies per issue first recorded (ironically, these newspapers are now very rare due to the horrible quality cheap paper used, and the huge losses in World War World II era paper unit) In this period appeared the features of letters modern news, headline the "banner", extensive use of illustrations, "funny pages" as well as expanded coverage of organized sporting events. The emergence of "yellow journalism" also marks this period. Hearst could actually boast that the newspaper produced a public clamor for war against Spain in 1898. It is also an age of media consolidation, independent newspapers were swallowed up many a strong "chain" with unfortunate consequences for the press once fearless and incorruptible, many are reduced to a vehicle for the distribution of opinion detached from its owner, and so still, without competing papers to challenge their views. In the 1910s, all the essential features of modern recognizable newspapers have emerged. In our time, radio and television is gradually replacing newspapers as the nation's primary source of information, so it can be difficult at first to appreciate the role that newspapers have played in our history.

History of Punctuation

1. Question Mark

At first, in Latin, to indicate the question, one must write the word "questio" at the end of a sentence to indicate that the sentence is interrogative sentence. So to save space, the word is finally shortened to qo, which is then compressed again into small letters above the letter q o, which ultimately are running out into worm-like dots and dashes, question marks just like we are now.

2. Exclamation mark

Like a question mark, also initially began by stacking letters. This sign comes from the Latin word "io" which means "cry of delight". when i is written above the letter o, shortened long as exclamation us today.

3. Equals sign

Discovered by English mathematician Robert Recorde in 1557, with this kind of thinking (in Old English) "I will settle as I doe woorke Often in use, a paire of paralleles, or Gmowe [ie, twin] lines of one length, Thus :, bicause noe 2 thynges, can be more equalle. " or translation: "I'm going to use the mark as usual, a pair of parallel lines, or a twin with the same length, because there are two more things that could be more of the same with the two parallel lines." Sign up with native Robert findings at least 5 times longer than we know today.

4. Ampersand (the "&")

This symbol is stilir form of "et" in Latin, which means "and." This sign was found by Marcus Tullius Tiro, a writer of the first century in Rome. Ampersand new name was given after 17 centuries later. In the early 1800s, schoolchildren learned this symbol as the 27th letter after Z, but still no where. So in the early 1800s with their belaar ABC "and per se, and" meaning "&" and then because of the speed of read, eventually became "ampersand"

5. Octothorp (a #)

Strange name for this numbering sign comes from the word "Thorpe," Ancient Normandy word for village or farm that is often encountered in English for the name of the place. Originally used for map-making, which means village surrounded by eight farms. Because eight (octa) and agriculture (thorpe), it appears this name, Octothorp

6. Dollar signs ($ sign)

The U.S. government recently issued their own money in 1794, and at that time still using old-world currency - pesos - or Spanish dollar. American 1 dollar coins exactly once as the first Spanish peso, both weight and value, so they take the same acronym: Ps. As time progress, the letter P written override S, and then began to circle above the P was removed, so just the letter S are overwritten with vertical lines.

History of Submarine

Many experts and scholars in the 16th century have started looking for forms and systems to make this underwater vehicles. Inspiration started from a boat or regular boat. Obvious relation, ships or boats gliding on the water. Some parts were in the water. Then the thought: "What if all parts of the ship can be in the water, but still able to glide and ride like a regular boat?!" Then with the help of science ideas to make the submarine appeared in 1578. William Bourne, a mathematician, designing a vessel covered by a water-resistant leather. This ship is meant to rowed in the water, because it was not yet known to the machine.

But this ship failed to realize. Similar ideas forwarded by the Germans in 1620. The author, Cornelis Drebbel, who managed to make a boat dive as deep as 360 to 450 centimeters, rowed by 12 people. Simple submarine without a paddle as well as more advanced equipment was started by a schoolboy d Yale (USA), David Bushnell. Submarine shaped like an egg creations, made of wood.

Equipment is the main breathing tube to the surface of the water, the propeller is rotated by hand labor, which manages the buoyancy tank and sinking submarines (if you want to dive, some water filled tank through a valve that can be set with legs raised upward and when water, the water is pumped out by hand), compass and a ballast in order to position the ship remains. Because the ship is then used for war, the ship is also equipped with torpedoes. Yet this new in 1775!?

Propulsion submarines with nonhuman started by Robert Fulton. It uses the steam engine to run the ship. And to facilitate the ship lurched forward, the vessel is made with a cigar shape. This cigar ship carrying 2 crew and was able to dive a few hours. More advanced submarines again belongs to the U.S. Navy in 1900. PG creator named John Holland and his ship called Holland. 1,590 centimeters long ship, run by a gasoline engine and electric power. Because it is a part of military equipment, ships equipped with weapons, including torpedoes, with a burst of air pressure.

But in use, gasoline often endanger the ship itself. Then to overcome this problem, devised a machine with a safer fuel, ie diesel, the diesel engine. This happened in 1905 and is a British vanguard. The diesel-powered submarine later became bakuan subsequent submarines. Right now there are powered submarines until 1000-1600 horsepower on diesel.

After the 2nd World War (P2D), equipment and advanced submarine capabilities even further. In the war-for example-and the U.S. Navy submarines also use a type of diesel engines Fleet. Their submarine 90 meters in length, with a crew of 85 people, speed 20 knots in 10 knots on the water and in the water, 10 pieces of the barrel torpedo mounted on the front and back of the ship, with the ability to release 24 per barrel torpedo. Each contains about 250 kiligram torpedo explosives. The actual speed of the submarine could reach 45 knots, but for security reasons the ship itself, the speed used only 20 knots. With this speed torpedo can be thrown with a speed of 29 knots.

U.S. defense even more to show sea power more firmly. In 1954, AL-United States made history, by launching its first nuclear-powered submarine, called the Nautilus. In the same year all peak capacity and speed submarine subverted by it. Submarine Nautilus became the first vessel to cross the North Pole in 1958. There are other peaks that were made, but by other submarines named Triton. 1960 Triton managed to wade through all the oceans of the world under water. This ship and wade across 66,970 kilometers in 84 days. Not only that, in 1960 the United States have started to equip their submarines with missiles (missile) intercontinental. The ballistic missile could pass 1,930 yards and destroy the targeted country.

But not the U.S. alone that have nuclear submarines. Soviets also had. Even according to military experts the world, the Soviet submarine fleet has more. Soviet submarines had about 350, with about 60 submarines armed with ballistic missiles. The U.S. only has 135 ships including 40 submarines armed with ballistic missiles. They both did handyman war, so it must have a lot of armaments.

Other countries are more peaceful certainly have less equipment. For example Indonesia, which only has 4 subs, 2 and 2 artificial Soviet-made West Germany. Which earlier was named Pasopati and Bramastra, the latter being Nanggala and Chakra.

History of Bluetooth

Bluetooth is the industry specification for personal area network (PAN or personal area networks) without wires. Bluetooth connects and can be used to exchange information between devices. Spesifiksi of Bluetooth devices is developed and distributed by the Bluetooth Special Interest Group. Bluetooth operates in the 2.4 GHz frequency band using a frequency hopping traceiver capable of providing voice and data communication services in real time between hosts with distance space. weakness bluetooth technology is a short range and low data transfer capabilities.

The presence of bluetooth makes a person no longer troubled with what cable, what color, to get to where, and where to plug into.  interconnection function can be replaced by a Bluetooth chipset that is placed on a built-in electronic equipment related.

The name "Bluetooth" is derived from the name of the king at the end of ten centuries, Harald Blatand that in England also called Harald Bluetooth. Thus the connotation is not far wrong, because according to mythology, it is said Bluetooth-haired and dark-skinned. He likes to eat blueberries or strawberries, it's worth it when Blatand teeth into a bluish or blue tooth.

He is the king of Denmark who has managed to unite the tribes that previously fought, including parts of what is now Norway and Sweden. Even the Scania region in Sweden, where Bluetooth technology is found also included his territory. Capabilities as a unifying king was also similar to the bluetooth technology now that can connect a variety of devices such as personal computers and mobile phones. While the Bluetooth logo come from the union of two German letters are analogous with the letter H and B (short for Harald Bluetooth), namely H (Hagall) and Runic letter (Blatand) which are then combined.

The beginning of Bluetooth is a wireless communication technology (without cable) which operates in the frequency band 2.4 GHz unlicensed ISM (Industrial, Scientific and Medical) using a frequency hopping transceiver capable of providing voice and data communication services in real-time between bluetooth host-host with limited service reach distance (about 10 meters).

Bluetooth A card that uses radio frequencies to the IEEE 802.11 standard limited range of services and the ability to transfer data is lower than cards for Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN). Bluetooth formation promoted by 5 large companies Ericsson, IBM, Intel, Nokia and Toshiba formed a Special Interest Group (SIG) is launching this project. In July 1999 document bluetooth specification version 1.0 was launched.

In December 1999 started again making bluetooth specification document version 2.0 with the addition of 4 new promoters namely 3Com, Lucent Technologies, Microsoft and Motorola. Currently, more than 1800 companies in various fields join a consortium as bluetooth technology adopter. Although standard Bluetooth SIG is now 'owned' by the promoter group, but he is expected to become an IEEE standard (802.15).

Currently more than 2,000 companies or community members joined the SIG bluetooth lovers. With bluetooth they offer more value in their products to target customers market top. In the next 2-3 years, bluetooth certain to be mass produced and integrated into a variety of office equipment products, household, health, medical equipment, automotive, music, games, and entertainment. Bluetooth will drastically change the lifestyle and way of working of office equipment and household utensils

History of Cowboy Hats

John Batterson Stetson was an American who was born in Orange, New Jersey in 1830. Up to now the Stetson name attached as part of the term "the real Stetson hat" or general we are familiar with the cowboy hat. Stetson hats created a model of the shape and accidentally while working as a gold miner in Colorado. Stetson made fur hat of the base material, because in addition to a powerful also easy to set up in accordance with the desired model.

Beginning Stetson hat shape is strange or unusual, even often used as a joke of his colleagues. But gradually the Stetson hat proves that being very useful. Wide side serves as a protection against rain water, then in times of hot weather, there is an air bag on the top end cap that provides insulation against the Stetson head, so that the temperature inside the hat to stay cool. Even the head of the Stetson hat (crown head) can be used for drinking water.

Based on stories told from generation to generation, the first to use cowboy Stetson hat redeem it for 5 dollars in gold. At that time the cowboy met with John Stetson on a journey, the Stetson cowboy hats are interested in and decided to buy it.

In 1865, John B. Stetson decided to end the adventure "wild-wild west it" and settled in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Stetson then set up a production house outdoor hat with a model that he found the first time (cowboy hat, cowboy hat). His first model was officially named "Boss of the Plains". In 1886, Stetson hat company has become the largest in the world and in 1906, the company has produced 2 million cowboy hats. Until now the basic model and the way of making a Stetson cowboy hat has not changed much since it was first produced in 1865. Stetson then attached with legend world "Wild West" as Buffalo Bill, Calamity Jane, Billy the Kid, Will Rogers even Lucky Luke.

Not only "western hat", the company also produc Stetson "dress hat", even for women, Stetson made a special label that Lady Stetson. Besides production also penetrated into scarves, knick knacks apparel, handbags, luggage and assorted accessories. 1970 Stetson strategic revamp its business by closing factories in Philadelphia and continue production with a Stetson label licensing system through a variety of manufacturing companies.

History Electron Proton and Neutron

Before developing the science of chemistry, the Ancient Greek philosophy are familiar with the term atom. According to his view, the atom is the smallest particle of building material. With modern technology, the atoms can be broken down into particles that are smaller, called subatomic particles, ie electrons, protons, and neutrons.

1. Electron discovery

The existence of the electron can be determined based on the cathode ray experiment (Sir William Crookes, 1879). In the experiments, using a device called a Crookes tube or cathode ray tubes called Crookes. If the Crookes tube connected to a high voltage direct current source that will emit a beam cathode towards the anode. The beam called cathode rays. Cathode rays have mass. This can be seen by turning the propeller mounted on the cathode-ray beam path. Observations show that the cathode rays could be deflected by an electric field towards the positive pole of power. It is proved that cathode rays have a negative charge

Based on these facts, what can you conclude? Stoney called cathode rays by electron term. Thus, the electron has a mass and a negative charge. If the cathode material is replaced with another metal cathode rays produced always the same. It is proved that cathode rays or electrons are elementary particles making up matter.

2. Proton discovery

Proved the existence of protons through a modified experimental Crookes tube Crookes tube filled with low-pressure hydrogen gas. This experiment was developed by Eugen Goldstein. If the Crookes tube is connected to the source of electric current in the back of a perforated cathode ray beam will be formed. Goldstein called it as a light beam canal. Therefore canal rays move toward the cathode, we conclude that the canal rays are positively charged. According to Goldstein, the canal rays no other is the hydrogen ion. These ions are formed due to hydrogen gas collide with the cathode rays. Therefore, the hydrogen ion contains only one proton, we conclude that the positive rays are protons. Replacement of hydrogen gas by another gas is always produced by the same rays canal rays generated by hydrogen gas. It can be proved that any material containing protons as one of its constituent particles.

On a modified cathode ray tube, cathode rays ionize the gas in the tube resulting positively charged gas in the tube. Positively charged gas is moving towards the cathode, partly through the gap and mashing cathode tube wall.

3. Neutron findings

The presence of neutrons in the atom was discovered by J. Chadwick through a trial by fire element beryllium high speed alpha particles. From these experiments, formed particles can be influenced by the magnetic field and collide with paraffin. Alpha particles are positively charged particles emitted by radioactive elements.

Experimental data showed that the light coming out of the beryllium targets are not affected by magnetic fields. When the light comes out of the beryllium target of mashing paraffin, paraffin protons will exit at high speed. Chadwick concluded that the particles that come out of the element beryllium was not charged and have a mass similar to the proton mass. Such particles called neutrons.

History of Flashdisk

Fujio Masuoka was born on May 8, 1943, in the city of Takasaki, Gunma, Japan, he is the inventor of flash memory. When he was 10, his mother encouraged him to study mathematics and hired a private teacher. By the time he was 12 years old, Masuoka had mastered mathematics. In high school, Masuoka concentrated on theory, believes that advances in technology or electronics is achieved only through theoretical work. As a result of his studies, Masuoka also developed a deep understanding of economics and law. She holds a Bachelor of Science, Master of Science and PhD in electrical engineering from Tohoku University, respectively in 1966, 1968 and 1971. Soon after graduating, Masuoka joined Toshiba Research and Development Center in April 1971.

Walking three months in his new job, the boss Masuoka, Dr. Yoshiyuki Takeishi, showed an Ultraviolet Memory Intel Electrically Erasable Programmable Masuoka (UV EEPROM), which was announced a few months earlier. Intel Masuoka then studied in two months and find a new structure, a type MOS memory read-only memory which is known by the name Samos Masuoka who became the first patent in 1972. Between 1972 and 1984, Masuoka made another significant breakthrough memory, dynamic memory cell with a pair of poly-silicon double. In 1977, he moved to Toshiba's semiconductor division, where he developed a 1 Mbit DRAM memory.

Masuoka then transferred to the product engineering division of Toshiba memory in 1980 to begin work on the development of flash memory. He then shifted to the engineering division of Toshiba memory design in 1984, where he perfected and patented the NOR flash memory. He presented his findings at the International Electron Device Meeting (IEDM) in San Francisco. A year later, he had grown to 256 Kbit flash memory. In April 1987, Masuoka back to Toshiba Research and Development Center, where he began to successfully develop advanced NAND-type flash memory flash disk embryo. Although groundbreaking, flash is not ready for commercialization.

To create and produce pre-fabricated commercial 4 Mbit flash memory chip, Masuoka needed to develop high-tech projected for the various circuit patterns on each layer of the microprocessor. But the estimated cost to make the technology is 10 million yen, which Toshiba was initially reluctant to invest. Masuoka convince Toshiba's consumer electronics research executives that 4 Mbit chip flash memory can be used for consumer digital camera into the flash memory that serves as a "digital film." With funding from the consumer electronics division, Masuoka continued to develop and present the 4 Mbit flash NAND-type flash memory at the Conference on Solid-State Circuits (ISSCC) in New York City in 1989.

In 1994, Masuoka joined Tohoku University where he was a professor for 13 years before being appointed as Professor of the University Research Institute of Electrical Communication. For his pioneering work on flash memory, Masuoka has received numerous honors and awards in Japan including the Gift of Watanabe Japanese prime minister in 1977 and the National Invention Award in 1980. In 2007, Masuoka was awarded the Purple Ribbon Medal from the Emperor Akihito.

Flash is not only growing in size alone, but the form and function is also changing. There is a flash drive that uses a rotary design so we do not have to worry about losing the lid. There are also rubber coated flash drive that comes with a waterproof or carabineer clip that easily hung. Has even made models shaped flash drive credit card. His name is wallet-friendly USB. It measures only 86 x 54 x 1.9 mm. Thus, it can be stored safely in a wallet.

For safety concerns owned flash drives currently limited to protect the data that is not accessible by non-owners. How it works is currently used, among others, use full disk encryption or physical authentication tokens. New system was introduced mid-year 2005 is biometric fingerprinting. However, this security method is very expensive because it uses high technology in fact the use of flash drives has been developed for a variety of things. For example, in an article described the steps setting the flash drive to boot Windows XP. The main requirement is the motherboard and the BIOS of the computer we can support the management of booting from a flash drive. Some applications can also be run from a flash drive without having to install it to your computer first.

History of Electricity

Pieter (Petrus) van Musschenbroek (March 14, 1692 - 19 September 1761) is a Dutch scientist. Born in Leiden, the Netherlands, from the family home appliances maker. His father was Johann Joosten Van Musschenbroek that when Peter (Pieters) birth parents always make the tools of physics (air pumps, microscopes, and telescopes). That's why small Musschenbroek liked science. Pieter van Musschenbroek attended Latin school until 1708, where he studied Greek, Latin, French, English, High German, Italian and Spanish. He studied at the University of Leiden (Leiden) and obtained his medical degree in 1715 and he earned a doctoral degree (Ph.D.) in the field of pure science (physics) with a dissertation entitled "De Aeris Presentia in Humoribus Animalum".

He also attended lectures by John Theophilus Desaguliers and Isaac Newton in London. He completed studies in philosophy in 1719. After that, he visited London, England in 1717 following his professor Desagilier and met with Isaac Newton. Pieter completed his studies in physics in 1719. Upon his return to the Netherlands, from 1719 until 1723 Pieter continued his studies and obtained a degree in Mathematics and a professor of Physics at Dursberg (Germany), when he worked with fahrenheit. He earned a great teacher in the field of science and mathematics from the University of Duesberg (Duisburg) in 1719. Musschenbroek Newton developed the ideas in the Netherlands. He was appointed professor (from 1721) at the University of Duesberg, Utrecht and Leiden (from years 1740-1761).

Musschenbroek is a professor in Duisburg, Utrecht, and Leiden, where he held positions in mathematics, philosophy, medicine and astrology. In 1719, he became professor of mathematics and philosophy at the University of Duisburg. In 1721, he also became a professor of medicine. At 1723, he left the post in Duisburg and a professor at the University of Utrecht. In 1732 he also became a professor in astrology. Musschenbroek the Elementa Physica (1726) plays an important role in the transmission of ideas Isaac Newton in physics to Europe. On November 1734 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. In 1739, he returned to Leiden, where he succeeded Jacobus Wittichius as a teacher.

Already during my studies at the University of Leiden Van Musschenbroek be interested in electrostatics. At that time, transient electrical energy can be generated by the engine friction but there is no way to save it. Andreas and his Musschenbroek Cunaeus find that the energy can be stored, which is also involved in the work of Jean-Nicolas-Sébastien Allamand as collaborators. Equipment is a glass bottle filled with water in which the brass rod has been placed;. And the stored energy can be released only by completing an external circuit between the brass rods and other conductors, first hand, placed in contact with the outside of the tube.

Van Musschenbroek communicated this discovery to René Réaumur in January 1746, and the Abbé Nollet, translator Musschenbroek letter from Latin, called the discovery of the 'Leyden jar'. Soon after, it was revealed that a German scientist, Ewald von Kleist, has independently built a. similar device in 1745's, just before Musschenbroek. In 1754, he became an honorary professor at the Imperial Academy of Science in Saint Petersburg. He was also elected as a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1747. Van Musschenbroek died on 19 September 1761 in Leiden.

In 1721, Pieter also earned an associate professor in the medical field. On July 16, 1724, was married to Pieter Van de Water Andriana. Then in 1738 Pieter remarried to Helena Alstorphius. He managed to develop their knowledge in science (physics) at the University of Utrecht and Leiden University. He is the person who first developed the scientific research on electric power tools and equipment. At 1729, he was a leading physicist from other experts.

Musschenbroek also one of the first scientists (1729) to provide a detailed description of the testing machines for tension, compression, and flexure testing. An early example of a problem in dynamic plasticity described in the 1739 paper (in the form of penetration with a stick of butter affected by wood ball). He is credited with the invention of the first capacitor in 1746: the Leyden jar. He did pioneering work in the buckling of struts compressed.

Electrical experiments are very popular around 1770 after the discovery of a jar of Leiden in 1745 by Pieter van Musschenbroek. Pieter contributed in the study of magnetism and cohesion objects. In addition, Pieter also found a high temperature gauges (pyrometer). During his life, pieter do more experiments and found many useful tools in the advancement of science and technology. Pieter died on 19 September 1761 and was buried in the cemetery where his second wife Helena Alstorphius buried.

History of Mirrors

Since about 8,000 years ago humans have known and utilize mirror. At that time, people take advantage of that shiny piece of stone like obsidian to be used as a mirror. One evidence is the discovery of obsidian mirrors in Anatolia region, Turkey, which is expected to be made around the year 6000 BC. Discovery of mirror polished stones were also found in Central and South America are expected to be made around the year 2,000 BC.

Technology to create a mirror and then developed with the discovery of a mirror made of polished copper were made in Mesopotamia in 4000 BC and in Egypt in 3000 BC. In China, found a mirror made of bronze, which were made in 2000 BC. Metal-coated glass mirror invented in Sidon, Lebanon in the first century AD. The back of the mirror glass with gold leaf is also mentioned by the author of the Roman named Pliny in his Natural History book, which is composed around the year 77 AD The Romans also developed a technique that creates a rough mirror of glass blowing is coated with molten tin.

Like a parabolic mirror and a convex mirror concave mirror was first described by physicist named Ibn Sahl of Arabic in the 10th century AD Ibn al-Haytham discussed concave and convex mirrors in both cylindrical and spherical geometries, do some experiments with mirrors, and solved the problem to find the point on a convex mirror at which a ray coming from one point is reflected to another point. And in the 11th century, clear glass mirrors have been produced in Al-Andalus.

During the early Renaissance, European manufacturers perfected a superior method of coating glass that have been found previously using a mixture of tin and mercury. The exact date and location of the discovery is unknown, but is estimated in the 16th century, in Venice, a city known for its expertise making glass, a center of mirror production by using this technique. Glass mirrors from this period was once a luxury item that is very expensive and only used by the rich and the nobility.

Justus Liebig find a mirror reflective glass as used today in 1835. The process involves depositing a layer of metallic silver onto glass through the chemical reduction of silver nitrate. The process of coating glass with a reflective substance (silvering) is adapted to mass produce mirrors. Nowadays, mirrors are often produced by depositing the aluminum (or sometimes silver) directly onto the glass substrate.

How it Works Mirror

Most modern mirrors consist of a thin layer of aluminum is covered with shattered glass. This mirror is called "old rear" (back silvered), where surface bounces seen through shattered glass. Coating the mirror with a mirror-resistant glass making, but it reduces the quality of the mirror for additional biasan front surface glass. The mirror like reverse about 80% of the incoming light. The back of the mirror is often painted completely black to protect the metal from erosion.

While optical telescopes and other equipment, using mirror "the elder" (front silvered), where the reflecting surface is placed on the glass surface, which gives a better quality shadows. Sometimes also used silver, but mostly uses aluminum mirrors, which reflect short wave better than silver. The old mirror reflects 90% to 95% of the incident light. Because of rusted metal in the presence of oxygen and moisture, the old mirror surface needs to be replaced over and over to maintain quality. Another way is, of course, using the vacuum to put this mirror.

The History of the Thermometer

Before thermometers discovered, astronomers and physicists made great efforts to be able to create a tool that can measure the temperature. They know that temperature can make the substance expands. To that end, they use the substance as a benchmark measure of expansion in measuring temperature. But the discovery of the temperature gauges can not be easily created. The experts need to find the right agent, the right technique and the right scale is also to be able to measure it carefully. Later in 1593, Galileo Galilei tried to make measurements using a thermometer with expansion of air. Tool created by Galileo is then called termoskop. Although still relatively very simple, but this is a rough tool can measure the temperature.

Galileo Termoskop

Termoskop Galileo consists of glass balls of chicken eggs is associated with a closed length of pipe filled with water. In a number of the load suspended in the liquid. Generally, the load is attached to the sealed glass bulb containing a colored liquid for aesthetic effect. When the temperature changes, the density of the liquid in the cylinder also change which causes the ball to move glass raised or sunk to reach the position where the density is the same as the surrounding liquid or interrupted by other glass balls. When the density difference is very small glass balls and terurutkan such a way that the less dense is above and that terapat under, it can form a temperature scale.

Nobility in Florence Tuscany, Ferdinand II, creating a better thermometer. The air inside the glass bulb is replaced with wine or alkhohol. The second fixed point is the temperature at the coldest winter and summer temperatures are hottest. Since the discovery Amontons and Ferdinand, then many emerging proposal on the benchmark point. There are proposing the use of a single point of reference only, but some are proposing two benchmark points.

Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit

After reading the history of science that tells Amotons discoveries about the boiling point of water is fixed then Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit thermometer compelled to make in order to see the natural phenomenon in the field of temperature. Fahrenheit thermometer repeat the design and use of mercury as a substance empirically. In 1714, Fahrenheit has created a mercury thermometer. This is a really thermometer carefully and thoroughly. The scale on the thermometer is known as degrees Fahrenheit.

Later on, note the use of mercury in measuring devices temperature has several advantages over the use of water. Among them:

• Mercury temperature range is quite wide. Mercury freezes at -40 ° C and boils at 360 ° C.
• The transition metal elements silvery, so it can be easily seen as shiny.
• Mercury does not wet the capillary Diding on the thermometer so that the measurement is being conscientious.
• Mercury is quite a regular expansion of the temperature to the temperature.

In 1730, Rene Antoine de Reamur Ferchault constructing a new temperature scale known as scale Reamur. In his experiments he used a mixture of wine and water in comparison 4 and 1. In 1742 Swedish astronomer at the University of Upsala, Anders Celsius dividing the distance in between the freezing and boiling points of water into 100 parts. Even this scale is known to scale Celsius or centigrade scale. On the Celsius scale, 0  C is the point at which water freezes and 100  C is the point at which water boils. Scale is the most commonly used in the world.

In 1848, Scottish physicist, Lord Kelvin, menyataka importance of the phenomenon of temperature-volume relationship or the Law of Charles and Gay-Lussac. For example, when we studied the relation temperature volume at various pressures. At a specified pressure value, the plot of volume against temperature produces a straight line. By extending the line to zero volume, obtained at the intersection with the temperature axis value of -273.15 C. At other pressures, different straight line obtained from the plot between volume temperature, but also obtained zero temperatures at the same volume, namely -273.15 C. (Raymond Chang, 2005: 130)

History of Eclipse

The first sense of the eclipse the Moon is found in a book entitled China Zhou-Shu, a book of the Zhou Dynasty. This book was found in the year 280 AD (Anna Domini). Eclipse is in the book is an eclipse that occurred centuries earlier. B.C. Russell believes that the eclipse is described in the book relate to events that occurred on January 29, 1136 BC (Before Christ).

While John Steele revealed that the first month of the eclipse observation notes made by the Babylonians was the first year Nabonassar regime precisely in 747 BCE (Before the Common Era). At that time, the Babylonians were able to make a calculation of the eclipse, which is known as the Year of Saros (of Sharu Babylonian language). Long saros year is equal to the pay off period 223 (1 pay off = average sinodic 1 month = 29 days 12 hours 44 minutes 3 seconds) or approximately 6585 third day, which is 18 years old, 10 or 11 days and 8 hours. 223 pay off the approximately equal to 239 anomalistic month (6585, 537 days), both to within less than 6 hours.

This makes saros interval period other than returning the Moon phase and the same node, it will also restore the Moon at approximately the same distance from Earth. Therefore, the results of this observational record Babylonia contribute knowledge that eclipses are separated by saros period will have a similar characteristic of. In 585 BC the famous philosopher Thales, transmitting knowledge from Babylonian saros cycle to the Greeks. He has also predicted that it would happen in eclipse. Thales's prediction turned out right once and at the time it really happened eclipse.

During its development, eclipse phenomenon does not necessarily understood as natural phenomena scientifically. There are some people who interpret as a supernatural power. On 9 October 425 BC, Wizard of women from Greece exactly Thessaly region claim to have the ability to extinguish the light of the moon and down from the sky. Understanding the development of the eclipse is not going to be separated from various mythologies. The people in the time of ignorance to believe that the eclipse occurs when the birth and death of great men. Prophet cancel this belief and explains the wisdom of God in the occurrence of the eclipse.

When the death of the Prophet's son, Ibrahim, there are some groups who believe that the sun eclipse because of the death of Ibrahim experience. They say so with the intention of glorifying the Holy Prophet and his son. When the Prophet heard what they are saying, Prophet angry, then preach to them that it explains that the Sun and the Moon are two sign among the signs that show the power of God Almighty and no one else for one's power against them. Both did not experience an eclipse because his death or someone, no matter how great the person. So the death or birth of someone no effect at all on the eclipse the Sun and Moon.

An astronomer from the famous Egyptian named Mahmud al-Falaky Phasya using Saros has calculated the number of years of the eclipse that occurred at the time of the death of Sayyid Ibrahim son of Prophet Muhammad. The eclipse occurred in the year 10 AH, precisely on Monday 29 Shawwal 10 H coincides with M 632 on January 27, 0830 in Book Irsyȃd pagi.46 While al-Student, solar eclipse that occurred in the year 632 AD that occurred on Jan. 30 coincides with the month of the year 10 H. Shafar

Periodicity of eclipses in one year has a pattern alongside eclipse. Obviously, not only eclipse the Sun alone, eclipsing the Moon has ever happened in the Prophet. In the book of al-Ershad Pupils that in the days right after the Apostle Prophet migrated from Mecca to Medina, there have been 8 times eclipse the Moon is composed of 5 times and a total eclipse of the Moon 3 times a partial eclipse of the Moon.

While the Fuqaha and Muhadisin found at the time of the Messenger of Allah did not eclipse of the Moon occurs but once and Apostles perform prayers upon. scholars of hadith opinion of jurists and this does not necessarily invalidate the above view of experts reckoning. In their view, although occurred 8 times eclipse, moon eclipse salat Prophet only once precisely the total eclipse the Moon in 5th Hijriyah. The Prophet did not perform prayer Moon eclipse to eclipse that occurred before that year because it has not prescribed. Eclipse that occurred after the partial eclipse that is not perfect in the end except eclipse only. 5 years Hijra is the beginning of the eclipse prayer in Islam.

In essence, the history of the eclipse will not be separated from the development of astronomy. Eclipse is one astronomical phenomenon that has always attracted the attention of people with a wide range of interpretation, whether it be scientific interpretation, supernatural and mythology. Therefore, the development of the reckoning and understanding, is closely linked with the development of astronomy science.

History of Glasses

Discovery glasses technology is closely related to the development of a magnifying glass. Owned by the oldest historical societies in the ancient city of Nineveh. They have known "glass eye", which actually serves as a magnifying glass over the lens material instead of glass but crystal. Ancient BangsaYunani also has a magnifier glass bulb contains intangible air.Baru the XII century, almost simultaneously magnifying glass on the outside honey mounted on the frame appears in Chinese society and Eropa.Melihat benefits magnifying glass, then in 1268 Roger Bacon, philosopher, scientist and berkebangsan British educational reformer, argued the need for a lens optical equipment. But not everyone is willing to put Bacon as the originator of the first birth of a glass eye.

With the evidence at hand, some have argued kemungkinanbesar sunglasses born in Italy in ± in 1286. As for who the inventor appeared two versions, whether Alessandro di Spina of Florence Florentine or Salvina Armato.Dalam singakt time, in the 1300s eyewear began to be produced by manufacturing center in Venice. But it's not like the glasses while now. Simple lens quality, its use is also commonly used merepotkan.Alat read the monks with farsightedness disorder that only consists of two lenses which are connected, without stalks. After gluing on the nose connection, the user should continue to hold him. Although the connection is slowly getting stronger, the glasses still considered dangerous.

Various kinds of experiments were conducted to find the best and safest way to wear glasses. There were installing metal plates mounted long from nose to goto the middle and then head down to the neck. Because the installation is complicated and impractical, the goggles were not diminati.Model other is with a small chain attached to both sides of the glasses. Then the chain is attached at the back of the head, like special glasses for swimmers or bikers. Anything else is hooked on hats sunglasses. It was inconvenient, even annoying, especially when I had to read in the room or open the cap to give salam.Akhirnya, there are people who are creative enough to put up the stalk, so the glasses can "hold" on the ear.

The end of the XIV century when the glasses came into common use and are considered as precious objects, tools read it often appears as a subject in painting accessories. One of them is a painting of Pope Leo X made by Raphael 1517.Perkembangan next year is now successfully found glasses bifokus, which has a well and a concave lens convex lens in one frame. In 1784 the world's first glasses bifokus made by Benjamin Franklin - politicians, writers, scientists as well as America. However, optical devices which can make it convenient when traveling, because in addition to enjoying the scenery at the same time also to read his favorite books, still simple shape.

After successfully separating convex and concave glass, he cut horizontally each section stersebut hand lens. Then with clamped by frame, the piece convex lens in the lens cut ditumpankan cembung.Hingga 1884 was also produced bifokus lenses are made from the pieces, though it was sticky. It was only in 1908 and 1910 known convex and concave lenses are completely fused in one lens lensa.Materi also helped develop, the first of quartz, glass lens made subsequently. Last few decades, even more diverse selection of lenses when introduced plastic lenses. Diperancis 1888 produced the first contact lenses as medical devices, because the view of the patient's disorder may no longer be helped by regular glasses. But the lens was only used a few people, it was forced. When fitted contact lenses are made of glass that will cover the entire front of the eye. In 1938 found a plastic contact lens. A decade later, the contact lenses were introduced which only cover the cornea.

History Necklace

If the views of its history, the necklace is an indispensable part of the jewelery worn man, even since ancient times. Purbapun man seen wearing a necklace that they've made from simple materials available in their era. There is a necklace made of stones, leaves, bones, shells, wood and others. As with other fashion accessories such as clocks, bracelets and belts, necklaces also undergone various changes in line with the changing times. A wide range of materials and materials, both natural and synthetic can be used to create a beautiful necklace. Just look at the collections of necklaces that are sold in stores or even in the booths in malls and supermarkets. Some of the collection is made of a material that seems simple, but very sweet and pretty views.

The necklace will be the center of attention of all the clothes we wear. Therefore we need art and expertise in selecting and necklaces to mix and match the clothes we wear, especially for women. This is true for both career women and housewives and even young women and teens. Selection of the right necklace course will further enhance your appearance. To find the fashion trends in vogue, you can follow it up with a variety of ways:

Enrich your knowledge by reading fashion magazines

You can easily find fashion trends that are "in" in the community, good clothing, accessories including necklaces, bags, shoes and so forth. Generally, this is very useful magazine for fashion lovers who never want to miss to attend and wear fashion products that are "in".

Watching TV

TV is one of the effective measures to recognize fashion trends prevailing in the society. The shows that there are mainly related to the artist, master of ceremonies, the figures are one way to know the latest trends in vogue. Usually the 'public figure' will be wearing clothing that are trends, especially young artists that will greatly assist you in choosing the latest fashion and accessories to suit you including in terms of choosing a necklace

Browsing on the internet

Advances in technology has brought a great impact in a variety of fields, including fashion in it. Communication more smoothly, even from continent berbedapun been speeding up the information about the latest fashion trends in the world. You can easily imitate the style of a particular artist appearance without compromising your identity, mix and match clothes and accessories that follow the trends that are prevailing in the society. Kalungpun election, you can do via the Internet that provides a wide selection of products to suit your needs.

Being an observer

This is the easiest thing that you can do it anywhere. When you're working in an office, gathering with friends, a walk in the mall or in a particular community be a good observer. You can observe the fashion and accessories - in this case including the necklace - which charged the people that you meet. You will surely come to the conclusion about the model, the material and what kind of necklace are a trend as well as the most appropriate necklace combined with a dress like. It is quite effective to help you look trendy and not outdated. Speaking about the necklace, of course, will not be separated from the material or any material that is used to make the necklace. Here are a few types, materials and material necklace that we usually encounter in the market:

Precious Metals

The most common material used to make the necklace is a precious metal, in this case gold. You can easily find a variety of models, weight and type of necklace made of precious metal. Generally this type of necklace adorned with a pendulum or pendant that you can choose according to your wishes. Today, the necklace is made of white gold or platinum are also starting to bloom we encounter in the market. For those who are fond of white color, platinum necklace of material is the most appropriate choice. Model and design is no less interesting and diverse with a necklace made of yellow gold.

Other metals

Many people are also fond of silver jewelry including necklaces. Necklace perakpun various forms, motifs and designs. In addition there are also silver alloys such as alloy, tungsten, palladium, Monel etc. are commonly used to make necklaces.

Rocklike

Necklace of stones are also very popular today. It takes creativity of the maker to create a beautiful necklace of various types and sizes of rocks.

Wood and other materials

For the kind of ethnic necklaces are usually made from natural materials commonly encountered in our daily life. The material used can be bamboo, wood, coconut shell, deer or buffalo horns and so forth.

Whatever type of necklace and material you choose to use, the important thing is how you mix and match the necklace with the clothes you wear so as to create a harmony in the way you dress.

History Calendar

Gregorian calendar calculations based on the Earth's rotation (rotation of the earth on its axis) and the revolution of the earth (the earth orbit around the sun). According to the system Yustisian 1 year = 365.25 days and a count of unity (the first year AD) started at the birth of Jesus according to the Christian faith. Basic calculations according Yustisian system are: first, the rotation of the earth is called a day = 24 hours and the second revolution of the earth called one year = 365.25 days. Based on these calculations, the Roman emperor in 47 BC set a calendar with the following provisions:

One year old with an excess of 365 days 6 hours each year Every four years or so the number is divisible by 4 to 366 days old called leap year (year-long), while the ordinary (non-leap year or short year) 365 days old. How to set one if the year is divisible by 4 is a leap year mean. In 1995 for example: 4 = 498.7 is not a leap year, while 1996: 4 = 499 is a leap year. Subsequent developments in the 16th century there was a shift from the usual spring which usually falls on March 21, has come a long way, then do a correction. Where prior to the calculation of one year is 365.25 days then since then one year to 365.2425 days. It was based on the calculation that the revolution of the Earth is not 365 days 6 hours but exactly 365 days 5 hours 56 minutes or 365 days 6 hours less than 4 minutes.

Therefore, on March 21, 1582 there was a shift to early spring fall more advanced in Europe. For the correction due to rounding 4 minutes during the 15 century the Pope Gregory XIII set as follows:

Pliers every year divisible by 100 though which is divisible by 4 is a leap year earlier provisions no longer a leap year. It is due to rounding of the day for leap year every 4 years that preceded a few minutes of real, then held again rounding on every 100 years.

Held once every 400 years rounding one day, so even if divisible by 100 then it remains a leap year. Calculation basis is the excess of 4 hours a year then the year 400 to 1600 minutes = 26 hours 40 minutes.

To remove the excess of rounding that has gone before it was cut days, ie after the date of October 4, 1582, being the date immediately following the October 15, 1582. so on 5 - October 14, 1582 (for 10 days) does not exist in the AD calendar.

With the correction of the calculation basis since 1600 to 2000 there was a correction that is 3 times in 1700, 1800 and 1900. This is because according to the conditions before the year 1582 every year divisible by 4 is a leap year. But since 1582 a new provision that applies every year divisible by 100 is not a leap year except for years divisible by 400. Thus in 1600 and 2000 remains a leap year because it is divisible by 400. the year is divisible by 4 is not a leap year for the period after 2000 is 2010, 2200, 2300 in 2400 while still a leap year because it is divisible by 400.

The conclusion that can be found on the trip of the year AD 1-2000 are:

year 1-1582 all years divisible by 4 is a leap year

on 5 - October 15, 1582 did not exist in the calendar calendar

In 1700, 1800, 1900 is not a leap year (3 years 3 days for correction)

Cycle of the solar year is a 4-year cycle for small (4 X 365) + 1 = 1461 days, while the magnitude of the cycle every 400 years (100 X 1461) - 3 = 146 097. February in normal (non-leap) were aged 28 days in a leap year 29 days old. Moon is 31 days old in January, March, May, July, August, October and December. Months 30 days old is the month of April, June, September and November.

History of Abacus

If the abacus to remember, so instead I ngingatin age to 5th grade elementary school, hehe .. The time Abacus into local content is still very new and foreign to my ears. But once learned then I understand that Abacus is a calculating device of a wooden frame with a series of shaft contains beads that can slide-slide, which enable people to perform arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and square root.

History of Abacus

Count tool was first discovered in the ancient Babylonian history in the form of a board on which it is sprinkled with sand so that people can write or calculate. That's why the tool called abacus is derived from the Greek Abacos, which means removing dust. The Chinese developed this abacus abacus or into 2 parts. On the included 2 bars of beads and 5 beads on the lower spokes. Model / shape that makes abacus / abacus became very popular.

In the 16th century, the abacus was brought into Japan by the merchants and monks-Buddhist monk from China. And the Japanese finally had the idea to reduce the amount of beads to be one on the top and four bars on the bottom grate. This method is very practical to make Japanese children very like arithmetic. This is what makes Japan so quickly rise from the rubble defeat in World War II. With young people who like the fields of exact sciences, the inclusion of Americans who brought Western technology makes the Japanese so easily able to replicate, modify and even now been surpassed.

This phenomenon did not escape the attention of neighbors. After the devastating Korean War in the 50's decade, the nation of Korea (South Korea) intensively educate young genarasi with Japanese models arithmetic so that in the decade of 60's they've been able to align themselves with other developed countries. Taiwan states that are already familiar with Chinese abacus models, do not miss the change to the method of Japanese learning system. And now Taiwan also enjoyed prosperity thanks to industry-based hi-tech.

Counting Method

Counting method as well as learning basic math, ie, by learning to add (+) subtract (-) multiplying (x) and divide (:) using ABACUS tool. In the early stages, children are taught to advanced and abacus master craftsmanship that moved into the realm of imagination until finally the children do not need an abacus again.

Ideal Age Learning

Ideal age of a child's learning begins at the time the child enters school at age TK-A,-B kindergarten, elementary school (SD) and the highest Junior High School (SMP). This starting point on the theory that children's cognitive development which begins at age 0 to 15 years old have a rapid growth rate.

Benefits of Learning Arithmetic

• Through a child's learning mental arithmetic will gain many benefits including:
• Improve numeracy skills faster than average children
• Mencongak capabilities more quickly and precisely
• Balancing left and right brain usage and optimize it to achieve a level of analytical thinking and logic thinking right
• Untrained fikir power and concentration, helping children to master the other subjects.
• Foster children's creativity develops the imagination so.
• Familiarize yourself with the numbers, making the child is no longer allergic to exact sciences.

History of Ancient Man

A. Paleolithic

Mean age Palaeolitikum old stone age. This era is characterized by the use of tools that looks very simple and primitive. The characteristics of human life in this day and age, that live in groups; live around streams, caves, or in the trees, and rely on foods from nature by collecting (food gathering) as well as hunting. Therefore, early humans are always moving from one place to another (nomadic). In Indonesia, early humans who lived during this period is a half-ape called Pithecanthropus erectus, Pithecanthropus robustus, Meganthropus palaeojavanicus. Also next live some kind of homo (humans), of which Homo erectus soloensis and wajakensis.

B. Period Mezolitikum

Mezolitikum age means middle stone age (mezo) or mid. This era is also called the era of "gathering food (food gathering) advanced", which began at the end of the ice age, about 10,000 years ago. Experts estimate of people living in this era is the nation Melanesoide who were the ancestors of people in Papua, Semang, Aeta, Sakai, and Aboriginal. Same with Palaeolitikum age, age humans Mezolitikum get food by hunting and fishing. They live in caves under the cliff (abris Souche roche), beach, and mountains niche. Abris Souche roche cave resembles a niche to be able to protect themselves from the heat and rain.

Results of human cultural heritage at that time was in the form of art tools found in caves and graffiti (or paintings) on the walls of the cave, like the cave Leang-Leang, South Sulawesi, which was found by Mrs. Heeren Palm in 1950. Van Stein Callenfels find sharp tools such as arrowheads, flakes, and stone grinders at Lawa Cave near Sampung, Ponorogo, and Madiun. In addition, the results of relics found in a kitchen trash can and snail shells as high as 7 meters along the east coast of Sumatra called kjokkenmoddinger. Equipment found in the cell where it is ax Sumatra, pabble culture, and hunting tools from animal bones.

C. Neolithic

Neolithic stone age means young. In Indonesia, the Neolithic began about 1,500 BC. Way of life to make ends meet has experienced rapid change, from the way food gathering to food producting, that is by growing crops and raising livestock. At that time people have started to settle in a house on stilts to avoid the danger of wild animals.

Neolithic humans has also been started to make granaries to store grains and grain supplies. Tradition store grain in barns can still be seen in Lebak, Banten. Bedouins there are so appreciative of rice are considered granting Nyai Sri Pohaci. They do not need to buy rice from paddy menjualbelikan outsiders because customary law is prohibited. They apparently have been practicing self-sufficiency since the time of the ancestors.

At this time, early humans Indonesia has known two kinds of equipment, namely square pickaxe and hatchet shaped. Square pickaxe spread in western Indonesia, estimated this culture spread from Yunnan in southern China to Laos and later immigrated to the islands of Indonesia. Hatchet shaped spread in eastern Indonesia are imported from Japan, and then spread to Taiwan, the Philippines, North Sulawesi, Maluku, Papua and the islands of Melanesia. Examples of rectangular axes was found in Bengkulu, chalcedony stone; measuring 11.7 × 3.9 cm, and used as a ceremonial object complement or provision grave. While the oval ax found in Klungkung, Bali, made of stone Agats; measuring 5.5 × 2.5 cm, and is used in the ceremonies of the ancestral spirits. In addition it was also found that a pitcher made of clay; measuring 29.5 × 19.5 cm; derived from Sumba, East Nusa Tenggara. This pitcher is used as stock grave.

D. Megalithic era

Megalithic era means large stone age. At this time people are familiar with animism and dynamism. Animism is the belief in ancestral spirits (ancestors) who inhabit objects, such as trees, rocks, rivers, mountains, sharp weapons. While dynamism is a form of belief that everything has a supernatural power or force that can affect the success or failure in human life. From the results of legacy, estimated humans on the Megalithic Age've known forms of spiritual beliefs, that is the way to treat people who died with treated either as a form of respect.

The belief of early humans to the natural forces and spirits can be seen from the discovery of primitive beliefs buildings. Relics that are spiritual in the Megalithic era found in Nias, Sumba, Flores, South Sumatra, Southeast Sulawesi and Kalimantan, in the form of menhirs, dolmen, sarcophagus, a stone tomb, punden berundakundak, as well as statues. Menhir is a stone monument as a place of worship; dolmen is to put the stone table of offerings; sarcophagus is a dimple-shaped building that resembled a coffin; grave stones are stone plates arranged to bury the bodies; punden is a terraced building as a place of worship, while statues is the embodiment of the subject of worship which resemble human or animal.

E. Bronze Age

Indonesia early humans only experience without going through the time of the Bronze Age copper. Bronze Age culture is the result of assimilation of the indigenous people of Indonesia (Proto-Malays) with Mongoloid peoples that make up the race Deutero Malay (Melayu Muda). Called the bronze age because in this period of human intelligence have had in fused bronze. In Southeast Asia, the use of metal began around 3000-2000 BC. Future use of metal, bronze, and iron in early human life in Indonesia called perundagian. Iron tools which are found in Indonesia shaped tools daily necessities, such as a knife, sickle, ax, sword and spear. Manufacture of iron tools and techniques require special skills that may be owned only by some members of the community, the group undagi. Outside Indonesia, based on archaeological evidence, before human use ferrous metal they had known beforehand copper and bronze. Process the ore into metal easier to copper rather than iron.

History of the discovery of bacteria

Bacteria (from the Latin word bacterium; plural: bacteria) are a group of organisms that do not have a cell nucleus membrane. These organisms belong to the domain of prokaryotes and the size is very small (microscopic), as well as having a large role in life on Earth. Several groups of bacteria known as the causative agent of infection and disease, while other groups can provide benefits in the field of food, medicine, and industry. Bacterial cell structure is relatively simple: no nucleus / nucleus of the cell, the cell's skeleton, and other organelles such as mitochondria and chloroplasts. This is the basic difference between prokaryotic cells with eukaryotic cells are more complex.

Bacteria can be found almost everywhere: in soil, water, air, in symbiosis with other organisms as well as parasitic agents (pathogens), even in the human body. In general, bacteria-sized 0.5-5 lm, but there are certain bacteria that can be up to 700 lm in diameter, ie Thiomargarita. They generally have a cell wall, such as plant and fungal cells, but with a very different precursor (peptidoglycan). Some types of bacteria are motile (able to move), and its mobility is caused by the flagellum.

Bacteria are microscopic organisms. This causes the organism is very difficult to detect, especially before the invention of the microscope. It was only after the 19th-century science of microorganisms, especially bacteria (bacteriology), began to develop.  Along with development of science, many things about the bacteria have successfully traced. However, this development is inseparable from the role of a variety of important figures such as Robert Hooke, Antoni van Leeuwenhoek, Ferdinand Cohn and Robert Koch. The term bacterium was introduced at a later day by Ehrenberg in 1828, derived from the Greek word βακτηριον (bakterion) which means "little sticks".  Knowledge of the bacteria growing after a series of experiments conducted by Louis Pasteur, who gave birth to the branch of microbiology.  Bacteriology is the branch of biology that studies microbiology bacteria. 

Robert Hooke (1635-1703), a mathematician and a British historian, wrote a book in 1665 titled Micrographia which contains the results of observations made using a simple microscope. However, Robert Hooke still can not menumukan structure of bacteria . In his book, illustrated his findings regarding fungus fruiting bodies.  However, the book that is the source of the initial description of the microorganisms. 

Antoni van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723) lived in the same era by Robert Hooke in which microscopy is still very modest.  Inspired by the work of Robert Hooke, she makes her own design with a microscope is excellent for observing these microscopic creatures in a variety of media experienced in 1684.  Antoni van Leeuwenhoek discovered bacteria successfully for the first time in the world in 1676.  The findings sent to the Royal Society of London which was then published in 1684.  This discovery immediately got a lot of confirmation of other scientists. Since then, not only bacteria but also the science of microorganisms in general began to grow. 

Ferdinand Cohn (1828-1898) was a botanist nationality Breslau (now Poland).The result of many discoveries about the range of bacteria that are resistant to heat.  His interest in this bacterial group pointed to the discovery of a group of bacteria producing endospores that are resistant to temperature high.  Ferdinand Cohn was also successfully explains the life cycle of the bacterium Bacillus which also explains why this bacterium is resistant to heat. Furthermore, he also made a simple basic classification of bacteria and developed several methods to prevent contamination of bacterial cultures, such as the use of cotton as a cover on pumpkin drinks, erlenmeyer, and test tubes. This method was later used by other scientists, Robert Koch. 

Robert Koch (1843-1910), a physicist nationality German, do a lot of research on the disease caused by a bacterial infection. Scientists initially studied anthrax attacks that many farm animals.  The disease is caused by Bacillus anthracis, one bacterium producing endospores.  Robert Koch was also the first man to successfully obtain pure isolates of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the bacterium that causes tuberculosis.  Based on two studies of this disease, Robert Koch successfully made of Koch's postulates, a theory regarding specific microorganisms for disease specifics.  He also managed to find a method to obtain pure isolates of bacteria.  Another discovery is the use of solid culture media for growing the bacteria in their natural habitat luat.  At first he used a piece of potato and then developed using nutrient gelatin. The use of nutrient gelatin still has a lot of shortcomings, which in turn is replaced by its use in order to (a type of polysaccharide) was initiated by the wife of Walter Hesse who also worked with Robert Koch.