History of Brookline, Massachusetts

Brookline is a small town in Norfolk County, Massachusetts, United States. Bordered by Newton (the Middlesex County) to the southwest and Boston (part of Suffolk County) other than that, it was actually co-exist with other parts of Norfolk County. From the 2000 census, the city population was 57,107.

First inhabited in the early 1600s as part of Boston, Massachusetts, known as the hamlet of Muddy River, Brookline incorporated as an independent town in 1705.

President John F. Kennedy was born here. Also is home to Frederick Law Olmsted, landscape architect of U.S. influence, 60 minutes sculpture Mike Wallace, Michael Dukakis, the former governor of Massachusetts and Democrat leadership candidate in 1988, Conan O'Brien TV talk show host, TV commentator Barbara Walters, General Manager Theo Epstein Boston Red Sox and New England Patriots owner Robert Kraft. Wallace, Dukakis, Epstein, O'Brien and Kraft wholly followed the Brookline High School.

The Country Club, an exclusive club here, said to be the first private club in the United States that was formed solely for outdoor activities. Most famous for golf clubs; any of the five clubs that formed the United States Golf Association, and has hosted the U.S. Open three times and the Ryder Cup once. Boston is also home to the Hellenic College and Holy Cross Greek Orthodox School of Theology.

Geography

Brookline is located at 42 ° 19'50 "North, 71 ° 8'1" West (42.330664, -71.13364). According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the city has a total area of ??17.7 km ² (6.8 mi ²). 17.6 km ² (6.8 mi ²) of land and 0.1 km ² (0.04 mi ²) of water. Total area is 0.44% water.

Demography

From the 2000 census, there are 57,107 people, 25,594 households, and 12,233 families living in the city. The population density is 3247.3 / km ² (8,409.7 / mi ²). There were 26,413 housing units on an average density of 1,501.9 / km ² (3,889.6 / mi ²). The racial makeup of the city was 81.08% White, 2.74% Black or African American, 0.12% Indian, 12.83% Asian, 0.03% Pacific Islander origin, 1.01% from other races, and 2.18% from two or more races. 3.53% of the population is Hispanic-American or Latino of any race.

There were 25,594 households out of which 21.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 38.4% were married couples living together, 7.1% had a female head of household with no husband's presence, and 52.2% not families. 36.7% of all households made up of individuals and 10.1% had someone living together who are 65 or older. Household size is 2.18 average family size is 2.86 on average.

In this small town the population was spread with 16.6% under the age of 18, 11.7% from 18 to 24, 37.3% from 25 to 44, 21.9% from 45 to 64, and 12.4% were is 65 years and above. The median age was 34 years. Of every 100 females there are 82.6 males. Of every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 79.1 males.

1 The median income of households in the city is $ 66,711, and the median income is $ 92.993 1 family. The man had a median income of $ 56,861 versus $ 43,436 for females. Per capita income for the city is $ 44,327. 9.3% of the population and 4.5% of families are below the poverty line. Of the total population, 5.3% of them under age 18 and 7.5% of them 65 and older lived below the poverty line.

Culture

Brookline is a gem suburbs. Adjacent to Boston - has been set up to preserve its identity - a mix of a busy road and a hilly interior, large-scale stores and public places in the village, gracious apartment buildings and large estates, and the venue for many academic and scientific professionals, who work at the medical center in Boston. Brookline has staunchly refused to put in Boston, which mengelilinya like horseshoes. Community 6.6 mi ² (17 km ²) and almost 55,000 people. Brookline has been taking care of city government meetings since 1705, when agricultural land "Muddy River". Boston was incorporated and named in the ditch which forms the border it. Among the many unusual sources of income, Brookline has its own working farm (with farm base), the oldest country club in there, a small town's golf course, the place where John F. Kennedy was born, there are garden on the hillside looking down Boston with an ice rink outside and transportation museum, and a number of parks and playgrounds are scattered around near this small town. Its main retail centers, such as Coolidge Corner and Brookline Village shopping area is pedestrian oriented busy with various shops - antique shops, coffee shops, bookstores, fresh fruit and vegetable markets, food shops and restaurants. In addition to offering the atmosphere of the city and the atmosphere in the village, no mixing between people in Brookline: elderly, minorities, immigrants from many countries, young families and college students. It is said that the collection of students at Brookline High School - renowned institutions at the national level - including students from 50 different countries. Although most of the residence, Brookline worried attract new commercial development company, and just in the last 2 years, the city has changed the region setting to encourage new growth along the way. With school (private and public), transportation (MBTA Green Line several branches across the city), and good governance, Boston is the place of choice for some people to live or build a business.

Brookline is known in the Boston area residents that many of the Russian émigré and a synagogue. Jewish culture is very strong in Brookline, and are especially prominent in all parts of Harvard Street that runs between Beacon Street (Coolidge Corner) and Commonwealth Avenue. Environment, which is kebetuilan also features the birthplace of JFK, is to place at least three area synagogues and a number of restaurants and shops berpokoq Jews, the famous cupola's Bagels-a patisserie certified Glatt-Kosher many claims have bagels best in the Boston area - and Zaftigs delicatessen.

Brookline is also known for his school, which is supported in most of the possession tax-the city has one of the highest property tax burdens in the United States. While residents of Brookline tend toward liberal ideas, economic and cultural factors keep this section in the Boston metropolitan area is less diverse than the surrounding area across the Charles, Cambridge.

"Fairsted", 100-year-old business headquarters and design services nationally renowned landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted and the Olmsted Brothers firm, has been carefully protected as Frederick Law Olmsted National Historic Site, located 7 land size (28 000 m²) of land in the landscape 99 Warren Street. Offering insight into the habit of actual design and construction of large-scale garden.

History of the Turkish State

This is the two continents. Approximately 95 percent of the area of ​​780 580 km2 are located in Asia, the rest go to Europe. Some suspect the nation Hittiti the region's first inhabitants, coming from Europe. think the more popular estimate Hittiti people from Central Asia. However, in many ways Turkey is oriented to the West than adapting the socio-political and culture of East Asia.

Entering first-year AD, the Turkish territory then called the Byzantine Empire was ruled for four centuries the Romans. Roman rule was dropped the barbarians. During this period the empire's capital was moved from Rome to Constantinople (now Istanbul). In the 12th century the Byzantines fell into the power of the Ottoman Empire led by King Osman I. This is the golden age of the Ottoman Turks.

During this period the Ottoman Turkish government to obtain a strong Islamic influence. Even after the death of Khulafaur Rasyiddin, Turkey became Caliphate under the Ottoman dynasty. Its territory includes the Arabian Peninsula, the Balkans, Hungary to the North African region. However, the caliphate was destroyed by power struggles involving the intervention of foreign countries.

Beginning of resistance to foreign interference led Musthofa Kemal, the action turns into opposition struggle against power Caliph. Self destruction of the Khilafah Islamiyah Moment happens when the Turkish people through their representatives issued a National Charter (al Mitsaq Al Wathoni). Since then, Turkey became an independent state, separate from the territories that once the unity of the Khilafah Islamiyah. Caliph Abdul Majid were last in power, were driven out of Turkey.

In 1923, disepakatilah establishment of the Turkish state with borders as today. Black Sea to the north; Iraq, Syria and the Mediterranean Sea in the south, the Aegean Sea to the west, and Iran and Russia in the east. Republic with the capital Ankara, the first led by Kemal Musthofa. He did a massive modernization oriented to the West. It replaces the use of the Arabic alphabet with the Latin, polygamy is banned and women are given the same freedom as men. The literacy rate, 90 percent of the 64 million population of Turkey. Kemal Turkey's founding father hath title (Attaturk) are known as Kemal Attaturk.

After World War II, the proximity of Turkey to the West more viscous. Turkey rejected the request of the Soviet Union to open military bases on its territory, but he invited the U.S. established military bases. In the 1960s this relationship is broken, even the U.S. embargo on Turkey. Cause, Turkey into conflict with Greek Cyprus in the struggle. In this case, the U.S. is siding with the Greeks. But in 1978, the embargo lifted.

Turkey's relations with the West viscosity opposition, especially from ethnic Kurds since 1925 when Kemal Ataturk came to power. But the rebellion can be broken. Efforts to re-establish Islamic law, is always addressed by repressive governments. But some 98 percent of Turkey's population is Muslim, despite continuing efforts to the extent of the underground.

In 1950, for the first time Turkey hold elections. At that time, Republicans defeated Democrats formed Attaturk. In the 1961 elections, the Republicans in power again. But then displaced by the dominance of the ruling Motherland Party now. Turkey is currently led by President Suleiman and Prime Minister Mesut Damirel Yilman. After the first election, and in 1980 Turkey experienced a political crisis that makes the military had seized power.

More than half of Turkey is mountainous. River Euphrates and the Tigris that was once the center of the world civilization, also across the region. A number of potential natural resource, available in abundance in the deposits. One of the production, including the largest in the world is chromite. Others are oil and gas and coal. With the support of the West, the rapidly growing industries in Turkey. But do not miss the agricultural sector with employment rates reached 60 percent.

History of Mercury

Mercury is the smallest planet in the solar system and the closest to the Sun. Planet name is taken from the name of the messenger god of ancient Rome. He was given the name because of its motion in the sky very quickly. From Earth, Mercury can only be observed visually at a maximum distance of 28.3 ° from the Sun. That is, the planet is visible in the eastern sky just before sunrise or after sunset in the west. With such a small angle range, we only have a maximum of 1 hour 53 minutes to observe the planet, which is when Mercury reaches maximum elongation. So, we will never be able to see Mercury zenith (see picture below). The planet is experiencing two inferior conjunctions in the intervening 116 days, so the appearance alternately in the east and west occurred within an interval of about 60 days. Since the emergence of the alternate planet that was identified by the ancient Greeks as 2 different objects. At that time, Mercury appears in the eastern sky and was given the name Apollo appears in the western sky was named Hermes.

Uniqueness Mercury

If we are in Mercury, we can see the sun moving retrograde in the sky. At one location, after rising in the east and before crossing the meridian, the Sun would move slightly backwards, stopped, then moved back to the west to sunset. Please see for yourself by using a sky simulation program (eg Stellarium). The cause of the Sun's retrograde motion is due at the time of the revolution Mercury's angular speed becomes equal to the rate of rotation angle.

Mercury around the Sun during the 88 days of Earth, while the rotation period is 58.7 Earth days. We can see that the ratio of the period of revolution and rotation is 2/3. That is, the planet of revolution completed 2 times in the same time with 3 times rotation. Even so, Mercury takes 176 Earth days to experience all day and night. Means a day on Mercury is much longer than one year.

Physical Characteristics

Planet rock is only about 4800 km in diameter. This size is smaller than Ganymede and Titan (2 largest satellite in the solar system) but Mercury is still more massive of the two. With a density of 5.43 g / cm ^ 3, Mercury became the second highest density of objects in the solar system after Earth. The core of this planet are known to be dominant relative to its size, reaching 42% of the total volume with a radius of 1800 km.

Eccentricity of the orbit of Mercury is the greatest of all the planets, which is 0.21. The distance of the sun between 46 million miles to 70 million miles. While the distance from Earth varies between 77 million km and 222 million km and kecerlangannya ranged between -2.3 (brighter than the star Sirius) and 5.7.

Mercury orbit inclination to the ecliptic is 7 degrees. The tilt angle of the axis of rotation axis of revolution is close to zero, about 0.027 degrees. Still smaller than Jupiter which was 3.1 degrees. With such a small angle, no 4 seasons in the northern and southern hemisphere of Mercury. The temperature at the surface varies between 80-700 K.

Flight Mission to Mercury

Mercury is one of the objects that are difficult to observe, so not much information to be gained from it. Even the new planet's rotation period is well known in 1965 after Mercury observed by radar. Shipping a vehicle to examine Mercury up close was not easy. Its position close to the sun, lack of atmosphere, and the difference in the rate of orbit are some things difficult. As a result, until now there were only two successful missions to observe Mercury, the Mariner 10 and Messenger.

Mariner 10 spacecraft was launched on 3 November 1973. Departure process that utilizes the planet Venus (the "slingshot" gravity) is the first carried out in the history of space flight. When passed near Venus, the spacecraft took footage of the planet's ultraviolet photography. Although Venus has been observed with ground-based telescopes before, still photos provided Mariner 10 Venus is inviting admiration researchers.

This vehicle has been providing exceptional knowledge of Mercury's surface and detect the magnetic field of Mercury. One thing that was surprising to the researchers this planet has a slow rotation. Finally, in 1975 Mariner 10 was defunct after its fuel runs out and the contact stopped.

History of Planet Mars

Mars is the fourth closest planet from the Sun. It took its name from the Roman god of war, Mars. The planet is often dubbed as the "red planet" because it looked remotely reddish pink color. This is caused by the presence of iron (III) oxide on the surface of Mars. Mars is a rocky planet with a thin atmosphere. On the surface of Mars are craters, volcanoes, valleys, deserts, and ice sheets. Rotation period and the cycle of Mars is similar to Earth. Stood in Mars Olympus Mons, the tallest mountain in the solar system, Valles Marineris, the largest valley in the solar system. In addition, in the northern hemisphere there Borealis basin that covers 40% of the surface of Mars.

Mars environment more hostile to life than the state of Planet Venus. However, the situation is not quite ideal for humans. The air temperature is low enough and the air pressure is low, coupled with the composition of the air, mostly carbon dioxide, causing the man to use the respirator if it wants to stay there. Missions to the red planet, until the end of the 20th century, yet to find traces of life there, despite being very simple. This planet has 2 satellites, Phobos and Deimos are. The planet's orbit for 687 days around the Sun. This planet also rotates. At 25.62 hour rotation.

On Mars, there is a unique feature in the Cydonia Mensae. This feature is a hill which, when viewed from above appears as a human face. Many people regard it as a proof of the long-extinct civilization on Mars, although in the present, it has been proved that the feature is just an ordinary natural appearance.

Mars was first surrounded on 14-15 July 1965 by the Mariner 4 spacecraft. On 14 November 1971, Mariner 9 became the first spacecraft orbiting another planet. The first objects to successfully land on the surface of Mars were two Soviet spacecraft: Mars 2 on November 27 and Mars 3 on December 2, 1971, but both lost contact after landing. In 1975 NASA launched the Viking program consisted of two orbiters, and each had a landing, the second lander reached the surface in 1976. Viking 1 remained operational for six years, while the Viking 2 for three years. Viking Mars lander sends a colored image, and the orbiters mapped the surface so well that the image is still used today.

Soviet spacecraft Phobos 1 and 2 sent to Mars in 1988 to study Mars and second bolannya. Phobos 1 lost contact on the way to Mars. Phobos 2 successfully imaged Mars and Phobos, but fail when it comes to removing two pendaratnya to the surface of Phobos.

After the failure of Mars Observer orbiter in 1992, the mission of Mars Global Surveyor achieved Mars orbit in 1997. This mission has been completed successfully and the primary mapping mission in early 2001. NASA lost contact with the spacecraft in November 2006 during its third extended program. Mars Pathfinder, a robotic rover vehicle Sojourner, landed in the Ares Vallis in the summer of 1997 and sent back many images. Phoenix lander arrived on the north polar region of Mars on May 25, 2008. Robotic arm used to probe the Martian soil and the presence of water ice was confirmed on June 20. The mission was closed on 10 November 2008 after losing contact.

History of the Solar System

Definition of the Solar System

Solar System is a collection of celestial bodies composed of a star called the Sun and all the objects bound by gravity. The objects include eight planets known to orbit elliptical, five dwarf planets / dwarf, 173 natural satellites have been identified [b], and the millions of heavenly bodies (meteors, asteroids, comets) others.

Solar System is divided into the Sun, the inner four planets, the asteroid belt, four outer planets, and in the outer portion is the Kuiper belt and scattered disc. Oort cloud is estimated to lie in the farthest regions within about a thousand times beyond the outermost part.

Based on the distance from the Sun, the eight planets of the Solar System is Mercury (57.9 million km), Venus (108 million km), Earth (150 million km), Mars (228 million km), Jupiter (779 million km), Saturn (1430 million km), Uranus (2880 million km), and Neptune (4,500 million km). Since mid-2008, there are five celestial objects classified as dwarf planets. Orbit dwarf planets except Ceres, was farther than Neptune. It is the fifth dwarf planet Ceres (415 million km. In the asteroid belt; formerly classified as the fifth planet), Pluto (5906 million km.; Formerly classified as the ninth planet), Haumea (6450 million km), Makemake (6850 million km), and Eris (10 100 million km). Six of the eight planets and three of the five dwarf planets surrounded by natural satellites. Each planet outer planet is surrounded by a ring consisting of dust and other particles.

History of the Solar System

Five planets closest to the Sun than Earth (Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn) has been known since ancient times because they all can be seen with the naked eye. Many people in this world have their own names for each planet.

Developments in science and technology observations on five of the last century brought humans to understand the celestial bodies free from the veil of mythology. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) with the telescope refraktornya able to make the human eye "sharper" in observing the celestial bodies can not be observed with the naked eye.

Since Galileo's telescope can observe more sharply, he could see many changes in the appearance of Venus, as Venus Venus crescent or full moon as a result of changes in the position of Venus to the Sun. Reasoning Venus around the Sun further strengthens the heliocentric theory, namely that the Sun is the center of the universe, not the Earth, which was previously initiated by the Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543). Heliocentric arrangement is the Sun surrounded by Mercury to Saturn. Galileo telescopes continue to be refined by other scientists such as Christian Huygens (1629-1695) who discovered Titan, Saturn's satellites, which were nearly 2 times the distance of Earth-Jupiter orbit.

The development of the telescope is also offset by the development of the motion computation of celestial objects and relationships with one another through Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) Kepler's Law. And the peak, Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) with the law of gravity. With two theoretical calculations that allow search and calculation of celestial objects further

In 1781, William Herschel (1738-1822) discovered Uranus. Careful calculation of the orbit of the planet Uranus concluded that there were disturbing. Neptune was discovered in August 1846. The discovery of Neptune was not enough to explain the interference orbit of Uranus. Later discovered Pluto in 1930. When Pluto was discovered, he was known as the only celestial object that was after Neptune. Then in 1978, Charon, Pluto satellites discovered, previously mistaken for the real planet because it does not differ much with Pluto.

The astronomers then found about 1,000 other small object that is located beyond the Neptune (called trans-Neptunian objects), which is also around the sun. There may be about 100,000 similar objects known as the Kuiper Belt Attraction (Kuiper Belt is part of the object-trans-Neptunian objects). Dozens of celestial bodies including the Kuiper Belt attractions Quaoar (1250 km in June 2002), Huya (750 km in March 2000), Sedna (1,800 km in March 2004), Orcus, Vesta, Pallas, Hygiea, Varuna, and 2003 EL61 (1,500 km in May 2004).

The discovery of 2003 EL61 is horrendous because of the Kuiper Belt is known attractions also have a satellite in January 2005, although smaller than Pluto. And the climax is the discovery of UB 313 (2700 miles in October 2003), named by the discoverer Xena. In addition to larger than Pluto, the object also has a satellite.