History of Indonesian Currency

Dated 2 November 1949 is the day of the enactment of dollars as the official currency of the Indonesian rupiah and printed as well as its use is governed by Bank Indonesia. Although at that time the Riau Islands and West Irian rupiah has their own variation, but their use was dissolved in 1964 in Riau and 1974 in West Irian.

The government sees the need to spend their own currencies in addition to functioning as a legal tender is also used as the main symbol of which is already independent state. The words "dollars" is derived from the word "rupee", the currency of India. Indonesia has been using Dutch guilders currency from 1610 until 1817 After 1817, introduced the Netherlands Indies Gulden currency.

Rupiah was first officially introduced at the time of Japanese occupation during World War 2, with the name of the Dutch East Indies dollars. After the end of the war, the Bank of Java (Javaans Bank, next to Bank Indonesia) introduced the Java rupiah currency as a substitute. NICA gulden currency created by the Allies and some currencies were printed collection of guerrilla also apply at that time.

Currency is the currency may be exchanged for free, but traded with the penalty due to the high levels of inflation. New Currency in the history of the value of money functions and the types of money and making turns through many stories and long history in the country of Indonesia

Economic situation in Indonesia at the beginning of independence marked by hyperinflation due to the circulation of several currencies that are not controlled, while the Government of the Republic of Indonesia does not have a currency. There are three currencies were declared valid by the government of the Republic of Indonesia on October 1, 1945, the Japanese currency, the currency of the Dutch East Indies, and currency De Javasche Bank.

Among the three currencies that exchange rate experienced a sharp decline is Japan's currency. Its circulation reached four billion so that the Japanese currency is the source of hyperinflation. Society that suffer most are farmers, because they are the most widely store the Japanese currency.

Economic chaos caused by hyperinflation exacerbated by policy AFNEI Commander (Allied Forces Netherlands East Indies) Lieutenant General Sir Montagu Stopford is on March 6, 1946 declaring the NICA currency in all parts of Indonesia that has been occupied by troops AFNEI. This policy was protested by the Indonesian government, for violating the agreement that each party shall not issue a new currency for the absence of a political settlement. But the outcry was ignored by AFNEI. AFNEI NICA currency used to finance military operations in Indonesia and simultaneously disrupt the national economy, so it would appear the crisis of people's faith in the ability of the Indonesian government to overcome problems of national economy.

Because the protest is not addressed, then the Indonesian government issued a policy that banned all Indonesian people using NICA currency as a medium of exchange. This step is very important because NICA currency in circulation outside the control of the government of Indonesia, making it difficult for national economic recovery.

Therefore AFNEI not revoke the application of the NICA currency, then on October 26, 1946 the Indonesian government imposed a new currency ORI (Oeang Republic of Indonesia) as legal tender throughout the territory of the Republic of Indonesia. Since that time the Japanese currency, the currency of the Dutch East Indies and De Javasche Bank currency is no longer valid. Thus there are only two valid currency that ORI and NICA. Each currency is only recognized by the issuing. So ORI is only recognized by the government of the Republic of Indonesia and the NICA only currency recognized by AFNEI. People turned out to give more support to the ORI. It has a political impact that more people favor the Indonesian government of the interim government who only supported AFNEI NICA.

To set the exchange rate with a foreign currency ORI in Indonesia, the government of the Republic of Indonesia on 1 November 1946 to change the leadership of the Foundation Center Tanuwijaya Djojohadikusomo Bank to Bank Negara Indonesia (BNI). A few months earlier the government had also changed the Japanese occupation government banks Shomin Ginko into Bank Rakyat Indonesia (BRI) and Tyokin Me into the Post Office Savings (KTP), which changed its name in June 1949 became Postal savings bank and finally in 1950 to the State Savings Bank (BTN). All this serves as a bank commercial bank which is run by the government of the Republic of Indonesia. Its main function is to collect and distribute funds or public money as well as service providers in the payment traffic.

Long before the arrival of the western nations, the archipelago has become a center of international trade. While in mainland Europe appears simple banking institutions, such as Bank van Leening in the Netherlands. The banking system was then taken by the western nations that expands the archipelago at the same time. VOC in Java in 1746 founded the Bank van De Leening which later became De Bank Courant en Bank van Leening in 1752 the Bank was the first bank that was born in the archipelago, the precursor of the banking sector in the future. On January 24, 1828, the Dutch East Indies government established a bank circulation under the name De Javasche Bank (DJB). Over the decades, the bank operated and developed by a Oktroi of the ruler of the Netherlands, until finally enacted Wet DJB 1922.

Japanese occupation period has stopped banking DJB and the Dutch East Indies for a while. Then the revolution came, the Dutch East Indies experiencing duality of power, between the Republic of Indonesia (RI) and the Nederlandsche Indische Civil Administrative (NICA). Banking was divided into two, DJB and Dutch banks in the region whereas NICA "Jajasan Poesat Bank Indonesia" and Bank Negara Indonesia in the territory of the Republic of Indonesia. Round Table Conference (RTC) in 1949 ended the conflict Indonesia and the Netherlands, then DJB defined as the central bank of the Republic of Indonesia (RIS). This status continued to survive until the return of the unitary state of the Republic of Indonesia. Next as a nation and a sovereign state, the Republic of Indonesia nationalized central bank. So since July 1, 1953 DJB transformed into Bank Indonesia, the central bank of the Republic of Indonesia.

The Asian economic crisis of 1998 led to the exchange rate of the rupiah fell to 35% and the weakening rupiah economic situation in Indonesia is lowered.

History of Knives

Knives, could no longer be denied. As the oldest tool of human beings, the knife has accompanied humans since prehistoric times until now. Throughout the history of human civilization, the knife has been used and more useful. Starting from the initial function as a means of self defense from wild animals in the pre-history, gathering food, making shelter until now where the knife can be considered as art pieces of quality and have high economic value.

The process of making knife evolve as the development of human civilization. You could say knife making human tingkatperadaban describe when a knife blade was made. me through a knife can be known with modern technology i then. Starting from the initial shape pisauyang changed from time to time, the evolution of form, materials and manufacturing technologies knife abreast of technology trends of his time. 

At the time of the stone age the first knife made ​​of stone Flint stone kind of shiny and has a sharp edge. With nothing more than a form of stone chips. This stone can be easily formed with high acuity in his day. The blade of this stone which in turn increases the ability of humans to the stone age to hunt, find food and make shelter. Subsequent developments have experienced this stone knife sharpening, grinding technology early enable humans to acquire flint knife which has a smooth surface with higher acuity. Since that time the prey debarking technologies grow more rapidly. Making a simple thread of fiber trees leads man to a higher civilization.

Further in human history finally know teknologipengolahan copper, bronze, and finally iron. The entire journey of human civilization is immortalized in blade technology and manufacture.

Humans have a very special bond with the tools that accompany peradabanya. Knives and tools like that help people in hunting, gathering food and so forth, has got a touch overwhelming feeling from the manufacturer. Touch the soul of art as a sense of respect for the maker of tools that facilitate the way of civilization has been demonstrated that the cultural level of the blade can be told when a knife is made. Touch of beauty that exist on a knife illustrate the high knowledge they have learned in a particular period.

Each blade can also describe the natural condition of the blade is made. Natural conditions resulting in different needs of each blade as an example, long and slender Bolo used in the Philippine highlands is suitable for

forest jobs in the area, but Machete from South America to have a more robust and more suitable for use in the interior of the more dense Amazon forest wood harder. Another example is a curved shape that is possessed by a Ghurka knife fighter is also used as a hunting knife, knife to slaughter tetak and yak, a different kind of a big bull with a Bowie knife of Americans who used to fight but do not need to kill game animals.

At this time, the knife still remains a very useful tool. Even when high technology has penetrated every aspect of life, where the knife is still needed. Some knives have changed function, more specifically to the needs for "sport" compared to "survival" as in the past.

History of The Calculator

It was only in the 1820s, mechanical calculators became populer.Charles Xavier Thomas de Colmar find a machine that could perform the four basic arithmetic functions. Colmar mechanical calculator, arithometer, presenting a more practical approach in the calculation because the tool can perform addition, subtraction, multiplication, ability, arithometer widely used until World War I. Together with Pascal and Leibniz, Colmar helped build a mechanical computing era.

After almost 12 centuries, emerged another discovery in terms of computing machines. In 1642, Blaise Pascal (1623-1662), who at that time was 18 years old, found what he called a numerical wheel calculator (numerical wheel calculator) to help his father make tax calculations This brass rectangular box called the Pascaline, used eight serrated wheel to add up the numbers to eight digits. This tool is a calculator tool based on ten. Weaknesses of these tools is limited only to do the sums

In 1694, a German mathematician and philosopher, Gottfred Wilhem von Leibniz (1646-1716) improved the Pascaline by creating a machine that can. like its predecessor, this mechanical device works by using the wheels. with study notes and drawings made by Pascal, Leibniz can fine-tune the instrument.

Beginning of the computer that is actually formed by a British mathematics professor, Charles Babbage (1791-1871). In 1812, Babbage noticed natural compatibility between mechanical and mathematical machinery of mechanical machines are very good at doing the same tasks repeatedly without mistake; being mathematics requires a simple repetition of a by steps. The problem than growing up putting engines mechanics as a tool to address the needs of mechanics. Babbage's first attempt to address this problem emerged in 1822 when he proposed a machine equation is called Differential Engine. Using steam, the machine can store programs and can perform calculations and print the results automatically.

After working for ten years Differential Engine, Babbage was suddenly inspired to start making a general-purpose computer first, called the Analytical Engine. Babbage's assistant, Augusta Ada King (1815-1842) has an important role in the manufacture of this machine. He helped revise the plan, seek funding from the British government, and communicate to the public specification of the Analytical Engine. In addition, a good understanding of the Augusta machine makes it possible to put instructions into the machine and also make it the first female programmer. In 1980, the U.S. Defense Department named a programming language ADA with the name as a tribute to him.

History of PT. Indosat

PT. Indosat Tbk was established in 1967 as a foreign investment companies that provide services International Telecommunication Indonesia. PT Indosat Tbk, formerly known as PT Indonesian Satellite Corporation Tbk, which is a provider of telecommunication lines in Indonesia. And telecommunications company Indosat is Indonesia's second largest multimedia to mobile services (Mentari, Matrix, IM3 and StarOne).

In 1980, the Indonesian government to buy all the shares of Indosat, so that when the PT. Indosat, Tbk became Joint Owned Enterprises (SOEs). In 1994 the company went public marked by registering its shares on the Jakarta Stock Exchange (JSX), the Surabaya Stock Exchange (SSX) as well as enroll in the New York Stock Exchange.

PT Palapa Indonesia (Satelindo) was established in 1993 under the supervision of PT Indosat. Began operations in 1994 as a GSM operator. Establishment as a subsidiary of Indosat Satelindo make it as the first GSM operator in Indonesia. In 2001 PT. Indosat, Tbk established PT. Indosat Multi Media Mobile (IM3) and was followed by acquiring all of the shares of PT. Palapa Indonesia (Satelindo) in 2002. Was followed by group as organizer makes Indosat mobile phone operator in Indonesia's second largest

In late 2002, the Indonesian government sold 41.94% stake in Indosat to Singapore Technologies Telemedia Pte. Then widened Indosat Telecommunication Company Limited (PT Indosat, Tbk) and the Foreign Investment into a company that offers a full service, integrated networks, and services of information technology and communications solutions.

On November 20, 2003 signing of the merger agreement merger of Satelindo, Indosat Multi Media Mobile (IM3) and Bima Graha into PT. Indosat, Tbk. This was followed by the emergence of PT. Indosat, Tbk, a company that focuses on the cellular signal (network) strong or Full Network Service Provider (FNSP). By combining the company's mobile, fixed telecommunications and MIDI his services into a single company. PT. Indosat Tbk is positioning itself into a provider of telecommunications services to a broad range of products in Indonesia.

Over the above program, followed by a thorough transformation program that began in 2004. Transformation includes the fields of human resources, technology, culture and values ​​of the company. These efforts are beginning to show encouraging results acquisition, the success of the company's record company revenue exceeded 10 billion Euro and an increase in margins in its 10th year as a public company.

Currently PT. Indosat, Tbk has opened a branch office in 5 regions of Sumatra Regional Office, Regional Office Greater Jakarta and Banten, Bali Nusa & Sulampapua Regional Office, East Java and Kalimantan Regional Office and West & Central Java Regional Office.

History of Photography

Understanding and Definition of Photography

Photography ( from English : photography , which is derived from the Greek word is " Photos " : light and " Grafo " : Painting ) is the process of painting / writing using light media .

Photography means a process or method to produce an image or images of an object by recording the reflection of light on the objects on light sensitive media . The most popular tool for capturing this light is the camera . Without light , there is no photograph that can be made .

To generate proper light intensity to produce an image , use the help of a measuring instrument lightmeter . After obtaining the proper size of the lighting , a photographer can adjust the light intensity by changing the combination of ISO / ASA ( ISO Speed ​​) , diaphragm ( aperture ) and shutter speed ( Speed) . The combination of ISO , Diaphragm & Speed ​​referred to as Exposure ( Exposure ) . In the era of digital photography in which the film is not used , then the speed of the film that was in use evolved into Digital ISO .

history of Photography

History of Photography started in the 19th century . 1839 is the year of the birth of photography . At that time , in France officially declared that photography is a technological breakthrough . At that time , recording two- dimensional as the eye can be made permanent .

History of photography began long before the AD . In the 5th century BCE (BCE ) , a man named Mo Ti observes a phenomenon . If the wall of a dark room there is a small hole ( pinhole ) , then on the inside of the chamber will be reflected in the view of the outside of the room in reverse through the hole . Mo Ti was the first to realize the phenomenon of the camera obscura .

Centuries later , many are aware of and admire this phenomenon , namely Aristotle in the 3rd century BC and an Arab scientist Ibn al Haitam ( Al Hazen ) in the 10th century BC , which seeks to create and develop a tool that is now known as a camera . In 1558 , an Italian scientist , Giambattista della Porta called the " camera obscura " in a box that helps artists capture shadows image .

Name of camera obscura was invented by Johannes Kepler in 1611 . Johannes Kepler makes the camera portable design that is made like a tent , and gave the name of the device camera obscura . Inside the tent was very dark except for a bit of light captured by the lens , the image formed in the state outside of the tent on a piece of paper .

Various studies conducted starting in the early 17th century , the Italian scientist - Angelo Sala use sunlight to record a series of words on a plate of silver chloride . But he failed to maintain a permanent image . Around the year 1800, Thomas Wedgwood , a British experiment to record a positive image of the image in the camera obscura lens , the results are very disappointing . Humphrey Davy conduct further experiments with silver chloride , but also meet the same fate , despite being caught by the camera obscura images without lens .

Finally , in 1824 , a French artist lithography , Joseph - Nicéphore Niepce ( 1765-1833 ) , after eight hours of clicking - exposed view from his bedroom window , through a process called heliogravure ( process works similar lithograph ) on top of a metal plate coated with bitumen , successfully gave birth to a somewhat blurred image , also managed to maintain a permanent image . He continued his experiments until 1826 , is what eventually became the actual early history of photography . The resulting image is now stored at the University of Texas at Austin , USA .

Study after study continues to pata dated dated August 19, 1839 , the opera stage designer who is also a painter , Louis - Jacques Mande ' Daguerre ( 1787-1851 ) was crowned as the first to successfully create photo real : a permanent image on a sheet of copper plate silver coated with a solution of iodine were exposed for one and a half hours of light directly heated mercury ( fluorescent ) . This process is called the daguerreotype . To make the image permanent , washable plates salt solution and distilled asir . January 1839 , Daguerre actually want to patent it . However , the French government thinks that the findings should be shared around the world for free .

Photography then develop very quickly . Eastman Kodak company through , George Eastman developed the photography by creating and selling a roll of film and the camera box is practical , in line with developments in the world of photography through improved lens , shutter , film and photographic paper .

1950, to facilitate shooting on a Single Lens Reflex camera then start to use the prism ( SLR ) , and Japan also began to enter the world of photography with a Nikon camera production was followed by Canon . 1972 Edwin Land Polaroid camera findings began to be marketed . Polaroid camera capable of producing images without going through the process of developing and printing film.