Friday, April 26, 2013

The History

Etymology historical

In terms of European languages, the history of the origin of the term used in Indonesian literature that there are some variations, however, many are recognizing that the term originated-origin history, in Greek historia. Known in English history, French historie storia Italian, German Geschichte, which means that the case, and the Dutch are known gescheiedenis. look at the linguistic meaning of the various languages in the above can be affirmed that the sense of history regarding the time and events. It is therefore a matter of time is important in understanding the events, historians tend to overcome this problem by making periodization.

Historical records

Historians information about the past from a variety of sources, such as written or printed records, currencies or other historical objects, buildings and monuments, as well as from interviews (which is often referred to as "the history of storytelling", or oral history in English). For modern history, the main sources of historical information are: photographs, moving images (eg, movies), audio, and video footage. Not all of these resources can be used for historical research, because it depends on periodeyang want investigated or studied. Historical research also relies on historiography, or historical perspective, which is different from one another.

There are many reasons why people save and preserve historical records, including: administrative reasons (eg, census purposes, tax records, and records of trade), political reasons (to give praise or criticism on the country's leaders, politicians, or important people), religious reasons, the arts, sports achievement (eg Olympic record), note descent (genealogy), personal records (eg correspondence), and entertainment.

But in the writing of history, these resources need to be sorted out. This method is called by critics the source. Source criticism divided into two kinds, namely external and internal. External criticism is criticism that the first time should be done by the historian when he wrote his work, especially if the source is a matter of history. Namely by looking validisasi physical form of the work, ranging from the shape, color and anything that can be seen physically. Moderate internal criticism is criticism that seen from the contents of the source, whether justifiable or not.


Methods of historical study

Leading historical experts who helped develop the historical study methods include: Leopold von Ranke, Lewis Bernstein Namier, Rudolf Geoffrey Elton, G. M. Trevelyan, and A. J. P. Taylor. In the 1960s, historians began to leave the historical narrative that is both epic nationalistic, and chose to use a more realistic chronological narrative.

The historian of the French introduced the method of quantitative history. This method uses a large amount of data and information to trace the lives of people in history. Historians of America, especially those inspired era and the civil rights movement, trying to better engage ethnic groups, ethnic, racial, and social and economic groups in the study of history.


Learning from history

History of science is a topic that is very interesting. Not only that, history also teaches things that are very important, especially regarding: the success and failure of our leaders, economic system ever, other forms of government, and other important things in human life throughout history. Of history, we can learn just about anything that affects the progress and fall of a nation or a civilization. We can also study the background of political activity reason, the influence of social philosophy, and cultural viewpoints and diverse technologies, throughout the ages.

One of the most famous quotes about the importance of our history and learn about the history written by a philosopher from Spain, George Santayana. He said: "Those who do not know his past, are condemned to repeat it." German philosopher, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel argues in his thinking about history: "It is taught by history and experience: that people and governments have never learned anything from history or principles derived from it." This sentence is repeated by the statesmen of the United Kingdom, Winston Churchill, said: "The only thing we learn from history is that we do not really learn from him."

Another view states that the history is so large that the power may not be changed by human effort. Alternatively, although there may be able to change the course of history, the people in power are usually too bothered by the problem itself so fails to see the overall picture.

There is still another view which states that history is never repeated, because each is a unique event in history. In this case, there are many factors that cause the occurrence of an event history, not all of these factors may emerge and over again. Thus, existing knowledge about an event in the past can not be perfectly applied to events in the present. But many consider that this view is not entirely true, because the lessons of history remain and must be taken of every event in history. If a general conclusion can be drawn from this incident carefully, then this conclusion may be an important lesson. Eg: natural disaster emergency response performance can be improved constantly and although every natural disaster is, by itself, unique.

History Chair

Seat is one of the oldest and major furnishings in the community. New chair is commonly used in the seventeenth century. Prior to the chair, people usually use a wooden crate or large pieces of wood as a seat. These objects are very large and heavy so it is difficult to be moved. Therefore, people began to think of making a body more efficient and ultimately created the chair.

At the time it was found, the chair is a symbol of power and dignity. For example in the Ancient Egypt (3110-1070 BC). Chair for the king made of Mahak, whether it's ebony, ivory, or gold-plated wood, carved or painted brightly, then wrapped in expensive cloth or animal skin. Seats are usually similar toe foot beast, complete with claws or nails.

Similar to Egypt, in ancient Greek society, (110-400 BC), seat determines the owner's social status. However, the nation had a chance to find a seat models 'klysmos' the chair without the typical hand-shaped, two front legs curved like the letter C gaping forward, reverse two hind legs like the letters C facing backwards. Curved back support and the stand was made of rope. The back seats popular in the early nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

Different again with the ancient Romans (700-400 BC), although many imitate Greek style, they have their own characteristics with more use of bronze and silver. The Romans succeeded in developing a curule stools that are frequently occupied the bench of judges. Curule usually of wood combined with ivory or metal casted. Model curule survived until the Middle Ages (400-1300 AD). Then followed with a chair with ottoman, side panels high, or canopy of damask or velvet fabric. Canopy panels and wind it as an antidote.

In Japan, India, and China-especially in the Han Dynasty (202-200 BC) - has generated oriental furniture of high artistic value. Skilled Chinese artisans connect between sections without nails or pegs, and rarely use glue. The trick, at the ends of the connection carved with highly skilled, so get in one another.

In the European Middle Ages skills in making furniture had fallen sharply. Upholstery fabric usually of wool, embroidered fabrics, rugs or material. 19 century, chair reflects the rapid development of technology. 1928 Samuel Pratt patented the first homemade seat using wire springs of iron or steel which eventually applied to the lounge chairs to be more comfortable. In the twentieth century, a new material known as plastic for the seat. Plastic is very flexible for everything.

History of Rubber

Rubber history began when Christopher Columbus discovered America in 1476. that time, Columbus was amazed to see the Indians play ball with the use of a material that can rebound when dropped to the ground. The ball is made of a mixture of roots, wood, and grass mixed with a material (latex) and then heated above the bed and rounded like a ball.

In 1731, scientists got interested to investigate these materials. an expert from France named Fresnau reported that many plants that can produce latex or rubber, of a kind Havea brasilienss them growing in the Amazon jungle in Brazil. Currently these plants become the main rubber-producing plants, and has been cultivated in Southeast Asia which became the main rubber producer in the world today.

A chemist of Iggris in 1770 reported that, the rubber used to erase the pencil writing from. since 1775 began to be used as a rubber eraser pencil marks, and be chewing it in the UK is called by the name Rubber (from word to rub, which means deleting), previously used breadcrumbs to erase the pencil marks. Basically, given the scientific name for elastic objects (like rubber) is an elastomer, but the title was rubber-more popular among the general public.

Rubber goods that are produced when it has always been stiff in winter and sticky in the summer, until a man named Charles Goodyear who conducted research in 1838 found that, with sulfur and heated dicampurkannya keret then it becomes elastic and no longer affected by the weather. Most scientists agree to establish as an inventor Charles Goodyear vulcanization process. The discovery of the vulcanization process eventually be called the beginning of the development of the rubber industry.

At the time of the Japanese occupation in Southeast Asia in WWII, supplies of natural rubber in the country to be a critical ally and is expected to run out within a few months. The U.S. government encourages research and production to produce synthetic rubber to meet urgent needs. This huge effort to fruition in a short time and continues to grow after WWII ended in 1945. Within a period of 3 years after the end of WWII, a third of the world dikonsumsioleh yag rubber is synthetic rubber. In 1983, nearly 4 million tons of natural rubber is consumed by the world, by contrast, synthetic rubber used has exceeded 8 million tons and growing until now.

History Of Wheels

History Discovery Wheel (Wheel's History of Invention) Ivan Taniputera May 3, 2012 which is considered the inventor of the Nation is the nation's wheels Elam who lived in Mesopotamia (Tigris-Euphrates valley). Considered as such, because the sculptures they created is the oldest depiction of the wheel. Although there is a possibility that the wheel is older than the nation of Elam, but it must be coming from the area around the place of their residence. Why is that? Because the wheel is not found in other regions of the world, except in the nations where ever coming into contact directly or indirectly with the Tigris Valley culture - Euphrates [1]. Kish also in Mesopotamia, found 5,000-year-old wheels. So we may conclude that the wheel was found in the Mesopotamia region.

Perhaps the idea of ??reinventing the wheels came from wooden rollers placed at the bottom of the board to make it easier to place the burden of moving. So the burden was rolled upon the rolls, and after that rolnya moved forward, and so on. Thanks to the use of the wooden rollers, cow age tractor can load longer. Wooden rollers which serves as the hoop likely the forerunner of wheels. Subsequent developments are entirely conjectural. Neither the board nor the load carrying wooden roller will both wear out after repeated use. The result is the notch on wooden rollers. In the meantime, this is a good thing, because it will prevent the wood roller slips out of the board where the load. However, if the wear and tear it gets in the form of the notch, then the middle between the two notches will rub against the board where the load. As a result, the movement becomes smooth.

People and find a way, how so this does not happen. They then make that the center of the roller to be smaller than the edges. Be two wheels connected by a shaft to be one with him. However, because both are fused with its axis, the wheels are forced to move with the same speed, so it can not turn easily. Mankind is not fond despair, and they were looking for another reason. Created with a fixed pivot each wheel spinning him. Thus, both of them can spin at different speeds. This makes it easy to turn. That was the forerunner of the wheel as it is now. Wheel then spread to various places. Ancestors of Europeans, most of Asia, and several African nations have known the wheel for several thousand years. But other nations are new to the wheel before modern times. For example, the Egyptians have known that using a chariot wheel. In the tombs of the kings of Egypt can be found the remains of chariots, which would use the wheel. Thanks to an advanced chariots, the Assyrians under Sennacherib (approximately 720 BC) managed to develop their vast empire. [1] See Wheels: A Pictorial History, page 9. SOURCE: Tunis, Edwin. Wheels: A Pictorial History, The World Publishing Company, 1954.

History of sugar

Sugar is a new food popular in the middle ages. Sugar is virtually unknown in the classical civilizations of Egypt, Greece and Rome. The Greeks (who have the most to all of it) does not even have a word for sugar. Arabs who had made the sugar as a popular commodity in the world, which has now become a staple of all nations, with global production exceeding 120 million tons per year.

During the Muslim Agricultural Revolution, Arab entrepreneurs adopted the techniques of sugar production from India and then refine and transform the sugar into a large-scale industry. Arabs set up factories and sugar plantations of the first and distribute to Europe and Africa. The word "sugar" in English comes from the Arabic word "Sukkar", which is derived from the Sanskrit word "sharkara". Sugar translations in several languages ?? have the same etymology, for example, "azucar" in Spanish, "sucre" in France, "zucker" in German, and "Seker" in Turkey.


Chemicals that are not natural

So formidable sugar permeates our lives, most of us do not realize that sugar is an unnatural chemicals. Nothing like sugar crystals in nature. Is the result of refining sugar (refined) sugar cane or beet juice after all the vitamins, minerals, proteins, enzymes and other beneficial nutrients removed. As a result, the sugar does not contain a variety of nutrients and fiber found in other, more complex carbohydrates such as whole grains, fruits, and vegetables.

Excess sugar is converted into fat by the body. According to the American Heart Foundation, "sugars contribute zero nutrients, but it adds a lot of calories which can lead to extra weight, or even obese, thereby reducing heart health." Sugar can also cause dental problems. Sugar residues in the teeth that are not properly brushed naturally encourage the proliferation of bacteria that produce acid, so it is easy dental cavities. Furthermore, according to some experts, the sugar slowly cause damage to the pancreas, adrenal glands and disrupt the entire endocrine system. Sugar causes large fluctuations in blood glucose.

Therefore, nutrition experts always recommend that mengsonsumsi not excessive sugar. Unfortunately, this suggestion does not seem much ignored. Indonesia's per capita consumption of sugar now reached 12 kg per year, the trend continues to rise. Per capita means every man, woman, child and infant Indonesia average consume 1 kg of sugar a month. Most people consume far above average, others below average.

Many people are addicted to sugar so eat sugar than they need. Most people also do not underestimate the intake of sugar. In fact, each 1 gram of sugar contains 4 calories. 20 grams of sugar loaf will instantly add 80 calories to your body. In fact, without us knowing our babies are also taught to addicted to sugar. According to a study by the University of Calgary, more than half of all food products targeted to toddlers and infants in Canada have too many calories from sugar. There has been no similar studies in Indonesia, but the likely outcome is not much different.


Recommended consumption

According to the American Heart Foundation, women should not consume more than 100 calories of added sugar per day and men 150 calories per day. That is, no more than 25 grams per day for women and 37.5 grams for men. The amount is already included sugar in drinks, food, snacks, sweets, chocolates and all that you consume that day.

Historical eruption of Mount Krakatau in Indonesia

Krakatoa is a volcano is still active and located in the Sunda Strait between Java and Sumatra. This volcano has erupted on August 26, 1883. Very powerful eruptions and resulting tsunami killed about 36,000 people. Until December 26, 2004, this is the terdahsyat tsunami. Krakatau eruption voice to be heard in Alice Springs, Australia and the island of Rodrigues near Africa, 4653 miles. Yield is estimated at 30,000 times the atomic bomb exploded in Hiroshima and Nagasaki at the end of World War II.

But the explosion that occurred around 416 AD It was destroyed three-quarters of the body mounts and leaves three big islands, namely Sertung Island, Rakata Island, and Long Island, as well as a third caldera in the center of the island. before 1883 came the two mountain chains and mountain named Mount Danan lam deeds which then gradually united with rakata Island and commonly referred to as Mount Krakatoa alone.

In 1880, the so-called period of strombolian, volcanic activity lasted for several months, and Mount Deeds active lava issued. After that period, there is no volcanic activity until eventually emerge will mark the eruption in May 1883.

Then on August 27, 1883 Mount Krakatoa erupted. According to historical records, which until now has always promoted the ranks of Lampung tourism, Mount Krakatoa erupted very powerful, earth-shattering. bursts of lava and ash reached an altitude of 80 km. While the ash around the earth for several years. emergency visits North America and Europe, as it appears in blue in the sun and the moon appears orange (orange).

This eruption produced great dust that can penetrate up to 90 km distance. The eruption also impacted the ocean waves up to 40 m vertically and has killed around 36,000 people in 165 villages in both South Lampung or the west of West Java. And because it has eliminated the eruption of Mount Danan and deeds from the earth and leaving the three islands of Long Island, Sertung Island, and a large and sebuahkaldera Rakata Island located in the middle third of the island with a diameter of 7 km.

Forty years later the birth of new wonders. Around 1927 fishermen who go to sea in the middle of the Sunda Strait suddenly surprised. Black smoke at sea level immediately poking among three islands, namely in the former caldera eruption was so terrible before. Then on the 29th december 1929 a crater wall appears to the sea surface as well as the source of the eruption. Only two years after the mystery cloud of smoke in the sea, and then came the strange object. "Faces" that monstrosity original increasingly apparent and it turns out that the latter is called Mount Anak Krakatau.

But the mystery of Mount Anak Krakatau not stop there. This mountain is unique, because it is always adding mountain altitude of about one inch per day. Mount Anak Krakatau that originally only a few meters away, now can reach 230 meters above sea level, and since the advent in 1927. This mountain has erupted recorded about 16 times since December 1927 until August 1930 and 43 times since 1931 to 1960 and 13 times since 1961-the year 2000.

History of Indonesian Currency

2 November 1949 is the date of the enactment of the rupiah as the official currency of the Indonesian rupiah and printed as well as its use is set by Bank Indonesia. Although at that time the Riau Islands and West Irian rupiah has their own variation, but their use was disbanded in 1964 in 1974 in Riau and West Irian.
Indonesian money. Government deems it necessary issuing its own currency in addition to functioning as legal tender is also used as the main symbol of which is an independent state. Word "dollars" is derived from the words "rupees", the currency of India. Indonesia has been using the currency of the Dutch Gulden 1610 to 1817. After 1817, the currency was introduced Gulden Netherlands Indies.

Rupiah currency was first introduced officially at the time of Japanese occupation during World War 2, with the name of the Dutch East Indies dollars. After the end of the war, the Bank of Java (Javaans Bank, later to become Bank Indonesia) introduced the Java rupiah currency as a substitute. NICA gulden currency created by the Allies and a collection of printed currency guerrilla also apply at that time. Rupiah is the currency that may be exchanged for free, but traded with the penalty due to the high levels of inflation. New Currency in the history of money and function of money as well as the types of manufacturing was experiencing a lot of stories and a long history in the country of Indonesia

Economic situation in Indonesia at the beginning of independence was marked by hyperinflation caused by the circulation of a currency that is not controlled, while the Government of the Republic of Indonesia does not have a currency. There are three currencies were declared valid by the government of the Republic of Indonesia on October 1, 1945, the Japanese currency, the currency of the Dutch East Indies, and currency De Javasche Bank.

Among the three currencies that exchange rate experienced a sharp decline is Japan's currency. Its circulation reached four billion so that the Japanese currency is the source of hyperinflation. Society who suffer most are farmers, because they are the most widely store the Japanese currency.

Economic chaos caused by the hyperinflation exacerbated by policies AFNEI Commander (Allied Forces Netherlands East Indies) Lieutenant General Sir Montagu Stopford is on March 6, 1946 announced the implementation of NICA currency in all parts of Indonesia that has been occupied by troops AFNEI. This policy was protested loudly by the government of the Republic of Indonesia, for violating the agreement that each party shall not issue a new currency for the absence of a political settlement. But the protest was ignored by AFNEI. NICA AFNEI currency used to finance military operations in Indonesia and also disrupt the national economy, so it would appear people's confidence crisis on the ability of the Indonesian government to address national economic problems. Because the protest is not addressed, then the government of the Republic of Indonesia issued a policy that banned all Indonesian people using NICA currency as a medium of exchange. This step is very important because NICA currency in circulation outside the control of the government of Indonesia, making it difficult for national economic recovery.

Therefore AFNEI not revoke the application of the NICA currency, then on October 26, 1946 the Indonesian government imposed a new currency ORI (Oeang Republic of Indonesia) as legal tender throughout the territory of the Republic of Indonesia. Since that time the Japanese currency, the currency of the Dutch East Indies and De Javasche Bank currency is no longer valid. Thus there are only two currencies in force the ORI and NICA. Each of these currencies is only recognized by the issuing. So ORI is only recognized by the government of the Republic of Indonesia and the only currency recognized by AFNEI NICA. The people turned out to give more support to the ORI. This has political implications that more people siding with the government of the Republic of Indonesia of the interim government that is supported AFNEI NICA.

To set the exchange rate with a foreign currency ORI in Indonesia, the government of the Republic of Indonesia on November 1, 1946 to change the leadership of the Foundation Center Margono Djojohadikusomo Bank to Bank Negara Indonesia (BNI). A few months earlier the government has also changed the Japanese occupation government bank Shomin Ginko to Bank Rakyat Indonesia (BRI) and Tyokin Me a Post Office Savings (KTP), which changed its name in June 1949 a Post Bank savings and finally in 1950 to the State Savings Bank ( BTN). All this serves as a bank commercial bank which is run by the government of the Republic of Indonesia. Its main function is to collect and distribute funds or public money as well as service providers in the payment traffic.

Long before the arrival of the western nations, the archipelago has been the center of international trade. While in mainland Europe appears simple banking institutions, such as Bank van Leening in the Netherlands. The banking system was then taken by a western nation that expands the archipelago at the same time. VOC in Java in 1746 founded the Bank van De Leening which later became De Bank Courant en Bank van Leening in 1752. The bank is the first bank that was born in the archipelago, the precursor of the banking sector in the future. On January 24, 1828, the Dutch established the circulation by the name of De Javasche Bank (DJB). Over the decades, the bank operated and developed by an Exclusive Right of the ruler of the Netherlands, DJB Wet enacted until 1922.

During the Japanese occupation has stopped DJB and Dutch banking for a while. Then the revolution came, the Dutch East Indies experiencing duality of power, between the Republic of Indonesia (RI) and the Nederlandsche Indische Civil Administrative (NICA). Banking was divided into two, DJB and Dutch banks in the region whereas NICA "Jajasan Poesat Bank Indonesia" and Bank Negara Indonesia in the territory of the Republic of Indonesia. Round Table Conference (RTC) in 1949 ended the conflict Indonesia and the Netherlands, then DJB defined as the central bank for the Republic of Indonesia (RIS). This status continued to survive until the return of the unitary state of the Republic of Indonesia. Next as a sovereign nation, the Republic of Indonesia nationalized central bank. So since July 1, 1953 DJB transformed into Bank Indonesia, the central bank of the Republic of Indonesia. The Asian economic crisis of 1998 led to the exchange rate of the rupiah fell to 35% and the weakening rupiah economic situation in Indonesia is lowered.

Thursday, April 25, 2013

History of Tea

Tea in the world with all its variations in spelling and pronunciation comes from a single source. 'Te', meaning 'tea' in the Amoy dialect of China. Chinese national from the tea, 'cha', also produced several derivatives words in the world. Tea into Europe in the early seventeenth century. Compared excess tea in terms of treatment, the Europeans prefer the aroma of coffee. Only among a small group of some of the nobility, who popularized tea.

First Discovery Tea History Historically, tea is expected to be found by a Chinese emperor named Shen Nung Empire who lived about 2737 years before Christ. Emperor Shen Nung was not only known as an emperor, but also as The Divine Healer (Healer of the Divine). Story of the discovery of tea by the emperor was not intentional when the first tea leaves of the tea plant in the garden of Emperor Shen Nung falls into the hot water that is being cooked by the Emperor.

When the tea leaves terseduh with hot water, aroma appear immediately made the Emperor very tempted to drink it. Not only savory aroma, flavor and bitterness Sepat caused by leaf tea is also very favored by the emperor because it is believed to make the body more refreshed and according to research Emperor Shen Nung, drinks tea can cure some diseases. Since then, the Emperor Shen Nung often drank tea and tea since it became very popular all over China.

For the first time in the year 780 AD a scholar named Lu Yu collect and record the findings of the benefits and uses of tea into a tea literature, namely Ch'a Ching or The Classic of Tea. The book describes the "Tea is a beverage that makes us more excited when drank, reassurance, open minds and prevents drowsiness, makes the body feel light and fresh as well as improve the ability to think". At the time of the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), the Chinese began to brew tea with boiling water. With a little adaptation, where traditional wine pourer of Chinese who use the cover to be a perfect pot of tea.

History of Laser Printers

Laser printer is a type of printer that uses toner (powdered ink) as a medium for the print data, a portion of the machine resembles a laserjet printer photocopier. With power enough print that can reach more than 10 pieces per minute. And the print quality that resembles the original. Color laser printers have a way of working that is more complex because in addition to having more than one photoreceptor scheme, also to be precise alignment between the colors.

American inventor who inspires a young researcher from Xerox Webster Research Center, Rochester named Gary Starkweather. At that time Gary was sitting in his lab thinks suppose if the printing is done on the computer??. Based on the idea then was born the Laser Printer. But this idea was opposed by Xerox management and requested that Gary stop trying. But do not break the spirit of Gary got there, he then tried another way secretly he continued researching and finally in 1969 the prototype was ready constructed by modifying an existing xerographic. Starkweather finally managed to create a form of laser printer copier with a system that already dimodikasi prncitraan removed and introduced spinning drum with 8 opposite side.

Laser printer behavior

Actual workings similar to a laser printer copier, which uses photographic drum. It works like this:
  • First Wire corona discharge of static electricity that makes drum (photo conductor) are positively charged.
  • Then, highlighted rays from the laser unit (exposition) on the surface of a rotating drum according to the information obtained from the computer. In this way, the laser drawing letters or images to be printed as a pattern of electrical charges-an image of a negatively charged static electricity.
  • Furthermore, toner or ink powder form sprinkled on drums. Because toner is positively charged, it will stick to the negatively charged area on the drum, the area that had been highlighted by the laser beam.
  • Insert a piece of paper in the paper tray so that the ground by the drum. Previously, paper given by the negative charge corona wire. Charge is greater than the negative charge of static electricity image so the paper can pull the toner powder is positively charged. Because spinning at the same speed with the rotation of the drum, the paper copy existing image on the drum.
  • The paper has been copied image was passed to the fuser, which is a pair of heated rollers. As it passes through the fuser, toner powder melts and hold tightly to the paper fibers. Then the paper was issued to the output tray.
  •  After the static image on the drum transferred to the paper, the drum through the light of liberation. Bright spotlight on the entire surface of the photoconductor and remove static electricity image. Then, the drum through the corona wire which gave positive charge back.
  • And the process is repeated again for the next printing

History of Inkjet Printers

Inkjet printer system introduced in tahun1984. with inkjet printers and printer ink cartridges, document printing tasks and replacement ink cartridges more frequently used, the more reliable the results are cleaner than on tape or charging the toner cartridge.

In 1984, revenue is not a dependency system as it is today. Inkjet printer system replaces the dot matrix printer, which resulted in the replacement of the ribbon. Shortly thereafter, the factories began to conceptualize printer inkjet technology, in accordance with the demands of progress. Some companies began to control the progress of inkjet behind. And in the 90s, such methods are widespread.

Technological developments Inkjet printers expand personal choice, and be proud, because of its ability to produce prints on different paper types and sizes, factory, films and others as well as inkjet technology is evolving faster than other types of printers technology. This is evidenced by the more frequent emerging inkjet printer compared to other printers. Inkjet technology still provides a wider development opportunities, such as increased speed, color and high resolution, so that the inkjet printer is identical to the personal printer. Inkjet printers are used for networking, but is dominated by a personal printer inkjet printer. Inkjet printers also have new abilities, like the ability to print on a variety of sizes and media (paper, cards, T-shirts). This printer is also used for schools, homes and millions of people around the world. Current methods cartridges needed to print both black and white or color images and pictures.

The workings of Inkjet Printer

When the OK button is clicked, there are some actions by the printer.
  • Application software that is used to send data to be printed to the printer driver.
  • Drivers translate transmitted data into data that can be understood by the printer and check if the printer is ready to print.
  • The data is then sent by the driver from the computer to the printer using a parallel interface connection / USB.
  • Printer receives data from the computer and the amount of data stored in the buffer. Buffers can be sized from 512 KB of RAM and 16 MB of RAM depending on the model. Buffering is very useful because it allows the computer to the printing faster than having to wait for the actual page to print.
  • If the printer is in idle status for a long time, usually will do the print head cleaning process first. After the cleaning is completed, the printer is ready to print.
  • Control Circuit activates feed stepper motor to take the paper. This motor activates roll and take Kerta that exist on paper tray. There is little mechanism to check the paper tray. If no paper is detected, the printing is done. But if no paper is detected, the LED on the printer will turn on and the printer sends alerts printer is out of paper on the computer.
  • After the paper has been loaded, the print head using the belt to move around the position paper. Motor stops every fraction of a second to give time for the print head to squirt ink dots on the paper before moving again. This movement occurs so quickly that it looks like continuous.
  • Several points were made in a single spray. Head print CMYK color spraying in order to get the exact value desired color.
  • After reaching the limit of the paper, the print head back to the beginning of the paper (or on some printers print head spin / turn around) and re-print.
  • The above process is repeated until printed a full page. Time taken to print one halamann also vary, depending on the complexity of printed pages or images.
  • Once printing is complete, the print head is positioned on the other side outside the paper area. Feed stepper motors then pushed the paper back into the tray up and printing is complete. Nowadays, most printers use ink that is fast drying so that the document prints can be used directly without having to first wait for smudging.

History of Musical Instruments Drum

History of drums began with the emergence of human civilization. drum has been linked to human birth. drum is one of the musical instruments used in the du hutan.juga called membranophone, means an instrument that makes sound impressive prolonged membrane with some type of object, usually a curved stick. Drums consist of a hollowed out piece (called the body), which extends to the end of the drum, and tuning keys or pegs which stiffens or loosens the membrane to achieve different tones. Which produces a rich sound when we play the drums is when we hit the drum membrane.

History of Musical Instruments Drum

Drum kit that was first developed for space and financial considerations in theaters where drummers are encouraged to cover the percussion section as much as possible. Until then, drums and cymbals played separately in military and orchestral music settings. Initially, drummers played the bass and snare drums by hand, then in the 1890s they started experimenting with footpedals to play the bass drum. William Ludwig made the bass drum pedal system workable in 1909, paving the way for the modern drum.

By World War I drum kits were characterized by very large marching bass drums and many percussion items suspended on and around it, and they became a central part of jazz music. Hi-hat stand appeared around 1926. Metal consoles were developed to hold Chinese tom-toms, with swing out stands for snare drums and cymbals. On top of the console is a "tool" (shortened to "trap") tray used to hold whistles, klaxons, and cowbells, thus drum kits were dubbed "trap kits."

In the 1930s, Ben Duncan and others popularized streamlined trap kits leading to a basic four piece drum standard: bass, snare, tom-tom, and floor tom. In his time fitted to larger floor toms, and "consolettes" which is designed to hold smaller tom-toms on the bass drum. In the 1940s, Louie Bellson pioneered use of two bass drums, or the double bass drum. The first drummer Gene Krupa himself to lead the orchestra and thrust the drums into the spot light with his drum solos, others will soon follow the lead. With the influence of rock and roll, a watershed moment occurred between 1962 and 1964, when the Surfaris released "Wipe Out" and when Ringo Starr of The Beatles played a Ludwig kit on American television; events that motivated legions to take drum.

The trend toward large drum kits in Rock music began in the 1960s and gained momentum in the 1970s. In the 1980s, a very popular drummers like Billy Cobham, Carl Palmer, Nicko McBrain, Phil Collins, Stewart Copeland and perhaps most notably Neil Peart were using large amounts of drums and cymbals and also began using electronic drums. In the 1990s and 2000s, many drummers in popular music have reverted back to basic four piece drum standards.

History of Anatomy

The Greek philosopher, voracious in their curiosity, look forward to a variety of living things, from the least of the plants to humans. A Greek name was invented by a German naturalist in the early 19th century to study all aspects of the physical nature of life - biology, bios (life) and logos (word or discourse). This is a topic with a clear subdivisions, such as botany, zoology and anatomy. But all are concerned with living organisms.

The first person to make a significant contribution in biology is Alcmaeon, at Crotona lived in the 5th century. Crotona known at the time of Pythagoras to graduate, but Alcmaeon does not seem to have been at their schools.

Alcmaeon is the first scientist known to have practiced dissection in research. The goal is not anatomy, the interest lies in trying to find a place of human intelligence. But in the course of his research, he made the first scientific discoveries in the field of anatomy.

Then the Greek theory, subscribed even by Aristotle, is that the heart is the center of intelligence. Alcmaeon reason that as a blow to the head can affect the mind, brain concussion, this must be where the reason. With post-mortem to pursue this idea, he observed the parts that connect the brain to the eye (optic nerve) and the back of the mouth to the ear (Eustachian tube).


Human vivisection: c.300 BC

At the beginning of the third century BC in Alexandria two surgeons, Herophilus and Erasistratus, made the first scientific study to learn about the workings of the human anatomy.

Cost of their contribution to science would be considered too high in modern times (they get much of their information from human vivisection, the patient became convicted felons). But Celsus, a Roman writer on medical history, suffering criminals vigorously justify providing "medicine for the innocent people of all ages to come.

The error affects Galen: 2nd century AD

The newly appointed head physician of the gladiators in Pergamum, in 158, was a native of the city. It was a Greek physician named Galen. The appointment gave him the opportunity to study the wounds of all kinds. His knowledge of the muscles that allow him to warn patients about the possible outcomes of a particular operation - a wise precaution physician Galen recommended the council.

But it was Galen dissection of apes and pigs which provide detailed information on the medical channel organs. Nearly 100 of the surviving channels. They became the basis of a great reputation in medieval medicine Galen, unsurpassed until the work of Vesalius anatomy.

Through experiments Galen was able to reverse long-held beliefs, such as the theory (first proposed by the school of Hippocrates in 400 BC or so, and maintained even by the doctors of Alexandria) air containing blood vessels - wear them to all parts of the body from the heart and lungs. This belief was based initially on the arteries of dead animals, which appears to be empty.

Galen was able to show that arterial blood contains life. The mistake, which will be established medical orthodoxy over the centuries, is to assume that the blood came and went in the heart of the movement and flow. This theory applies in the medical community until Harvey.

The science of sleep: 8 to 15th century

For centuries a very Christian atmosphere prevailing medieval Europe was not conducive to scientific inquiry. God knows best, and therefore should - because he created everything. Where necessary knowledge, no ancient authorities whose conclusions are accepted without question - the astronomy of Ptolemy, Galen on anatomical matters.

Some scholars showed an unusual interest in scientific research. 13th century Franciscan monk Roger Bacon is the most frequently cited example, but studies including alchemy and astrology, as well as optics and astronomy. Practical skepticism needed for science, not until the Renaissance.

Anatomical drawings of Leonardo da Vinci: AD 1489-1515

At about 1489 Leonardo da Vinci began a series of anatomical drawings. For greater accuracy of observation, they are far more advanced than anything previously attempted. Over the next twenty-five years, he dissected thirty human body, many of them to the morgue in Rome - until in 1515 Pope Leo X, ordered him to stop.

His picture, which is about 750, including studies on the structure of bones, muscles, organs, brain and even the position of the fetus in the womb. His study shows that the heart will find the concept of blood circulation.

Vesalius, and anatomy: AD 1533-1543

A medical student, was born in Brussels and is known to history as Vesalius, following the lecture on anatomy at the University of Paris. Lecturer explains human anatomy, as revealed by Galen 1000 years earlier, while the corresponding data points assistant with dissected corpses. Often Wizard can not find the body that are described, but the body is not always necessary to be one of Galen.

Vesalius decided he would dissect the bodies themselves and to trust the evidence of what was found. The approach is highly controversial. But his apparent ability to cause his appointment in 1537 as professor of surgery and anatomy at the University of Padua.


In 1540, Vesalius gave a public demonstration of the inaccuracy of the anatomy of Galen's theory, which is still in the orthodox medical profession.

Galen made a lot of experimentation on great apes. Vesalius is now on the screen - for comparison - a man and a monkey skeleton.


Vesalius was able to show that in many cases it is true monkey sighting Galen, but it has nothing to do with humans. Clearly what is needed is a new account of the human anatomy.

Vesalius himself the task of providing, illustrated with a series of surgeries and images. Has at its disposal, the method is relatively new in Europe, to ensure a clear division of the image printed form - the art of wood carving. His studies were inaugurated modern science of anatomy.


In Basel, Switzerland, in 1543 Vesalius published his great work - De Humani Corporis Fabrica (The structure of the human body). There are seven volumes, including beautiful illustrations engraved on wood. This book is a success, although naturally it enrages traditionalists who followed Galen. Galen theory is, after all, a clear benefit of seniority. They are now some 1400 years.

But for those who want to see with clear eyes, plates in Vesalius volume is a revelation. For the first time people can scan in their own skins, in a very clear picture of what is hidden.


Harvey and blood circulation: AD 1628

There is a book published in 1628 which provides one of the biggest breakthroughs in understanding the human body - perhaps the largest to the discovery of DNA structure in the 20th century.

This book consists of fifty-two pages, also argued. Its text in Latin. The title is Exercitatio anatomica motu cordis and animalibus sanguinis ("The functional anatomy of the Movement of the Heart and Blood in Animals"). The author is William Harvey. In this book he shows without a doubt, an entirely new concept. Blood, it shows, does not originate in the body of any kind of tidal random. Instead he continued to be pumped around the circuit is very accurate.


So far it has been assumed that the blood in the arteries and blood in the veins is of different nature. It is well known that they are a different color, and there are many theories as to what each shipment of blood.

The most common belief is that arteries carry air to the type of energy connected to the body (not far from the truth), and blood in the blood vessels of the liver distribute food (less accurate).


With a long series of surgery (dogs and pigs to snails and clams), and the process of logical reasoning, Harvey was able to prove that the body contains a single blood supply, and that the heart is a muscular pump about its circuitry.

This circuit, as it can demonstrate, carry blood from the veins into the right ventricle of the heart, he was sent from there via the lungs to the left ventricle of the heart, and then distribute it through the arteries to return various body regions.


After much initial opposition, arguments Harvey finally convinced most of his contemporaries. But there are two missing ingredients. The theory suggests that there should be a network of tiny blood vessels that carry blood from the arterial system and the venous system and complete the circuit. But surgery was not enough to show this. It was not until four years after his death that Marcello Malpighi observed capillary.

And Harvey can not explain why the heart has to pump blood. This explanation must await the discovery of oxygen.


Malpighi and microscopy: AD 1661

Marcello Malpighi, professor of theoretical medicine at the University of Bologna, is a pioneer in the use of the microscope in biology. One night in 1661, on a hill near Bologna, using the sun as a source of light, shining in its goal through thin sections made from the lungs of the frog. In the broader picture, it is clear that all of the blood contained in a small tube.

Malpighi thus became the first scientist to observe the capillaries, the tiny blood vessels in which blood flows through the flesh. They are so smooth and so much so that each of our bodies contains more than 100,000 kilometers of microscopic channels.

With their discovery, the missing link in Harvey on the circulation of the blood was found. For literally capillary link through which oxygen-rich blood from the arteries provide energy to the cell body first, then find a way back into the vein to be returned to the heart.


Leeuwenhoek and microscopy: AD 1674-1683

Pioneering work by Malpighi microscope is also taken by the Dutch scientist Anton van Leeuwenhoek. He taught polishing glasses at a very high precision and clarity (some of them provide 300x magnification), using a simple microscope with only one lens - magnifying glass is actually small and very powerful. With these instruments, he was able to observe a phenomenon previously too small to be seen. In 1674, he was the first scientist to give an accurate description of red blood cells. At 1677, he observed and described sperm in semen dog. In 1683, he gave a picture of animalcules (or bacteria) were observed in saliva and dental plaque.

His findings, which largely published in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London (though he himself lived in Delft), strongly suggest the joy of being the first to walk around with such a broad vision of the little things from the animal reign. His account of the following general chip development from egg to enhance the practice of adult anatomy. Study shows for the first time that living things have a life cycle and a minute generative systems as larger creatures.

Microscopic Anatomy: 17th - 20th century

Malphighi discovery capillaries, the anatomy of the main body are known. With a thorough study of Leeuwenhoek previously unseen aspects of living matter, the subject moves to stage a more mysterious - than the microscopic anatomy.

The first steps of a major new road occurred in the 1830s.

Felix Dujardin in 1835 identified as a translucent viscous substance common to all forms of life, the name given by the protoplasm. While others observed that the object of life is set in the form of repeated structural. Robert Brown found in the factory, in 1831, the main nucleus of every cell. In 1839, Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Swann gave the first account of the formation of a coherent cell that the process of development of all life (long theme guessed by others, but not solved or shows). But the further along this journey, deep into the center of the living matter, is the discovery of the structure of DNA in 1953.

History dynamo

Michael Faraday inventor of  dynamo

Michael Faraday was born in 1791 in Newington, England, noted as the first inventor of the dynamo, at the age of fourteen he so intern handyman volumes and selling books, and he used this opportunity many people read books like crazy. When twenty-year old stepped on, he visited the lectures given by renowned British scientist Sir Humphry Davy. Enchanted Faraday and gape gaping. Davy wrote to both profit and short story accepted as his assistant. Within a few years, Faraday was able to make new discoveries on his own creation. Although he did not have a sufficient background in mathematics, as a natural scientist he was not unchallenged.

Faraday first important discovery in the field of electricity occurred in 1821. Oersted two years earlier had found that the magnetic needle compass can be shifted if the ordinary electric current flowed in the wire are not far apart. This make Faraday concluded, if the magnet diketatkan, the wire actually moves. Working on the basis of these allegations, he managed to make a clear scheme where the wire will constantly rotating magnet adjacent to all electrical power is applied to the wire. Indeed in this case the Faraday had found the first electric motor, a first scheme uses an electric current to create something moving objects. No matter how primitive, discovery Faraday is the "ancestor" of all electric motors used today's world.

This is an outstanding pacesetter. However, its practical usefulness is limited avail, as long as no method to drive electric current from the battery than simple chemical at the time. Faraday sure, there must be a way of using magnets for electric drive, and he is constantly looking for a way how to find the method. Now, the magnetic sedentary does not affect the electric current adjacent to the wire. But in 1831, Faraday discovered that when a magnet passed through a piece of wire, current will flow in the wire while the magnet moves. This situation is called "electro magnetic influence," and this is called "Faraday's Law" and is generally considered the most important discoveries of Faraday and greatest.

This is a monumental discovery, for two reasons. First, "Faraday's Law" has a fundamental importance in relation to our theoretical understanding of the electro-magnetic. Secondly, electro magnetic can be used to drive continuous electrical current flow as demonstrated by Faraday himself by making the first electric dynamo. Although our power generators to supply the town and factory today is much more perfect than what is done Faraday, but all based on similar principles to the electro magnetic influence.

Faraday also contributed in the field of chemistry. He made a plan to change the gas so fluid, he found various types of chemicals, including benzene. More importantly, the work of his efforts in the field of electro-chemistry (chemical investigation of the effect of the electric current). Faraday with high precision investigation resulted in two legal "elektrolysis" that their mention his name coupled with that is the basis of electro-chemistry. He also popularized a lot of the terms used in the field such as: the anode, cathode, electrode, and ion.

Inventor of the telescope

Hans Lippershey  Inventor of the telescope

Also known as Johann Hans Lippershey Lippershey or Lipperhey, is a maker of bloody German-Dutch lens. He was born in Wesel, western Germany. Then he settled in Middelburg, the Netherlands in 1594, and married in the same year, and became a citizen of the Netherlands in 1602. Middelburg he lived until his death. Galileo's telescope, the first telescope was not found. Before Galileo, a lot of researchers who claim that he is the inventor of the telescope. 

Telescope may have created a lot earlier, and still be a debate about the actual inventor. But Lippershey believed to be the first person gets a patent for his design and make it for general use in 1608. However, on the fact he failed to receive a patent for his discovery telescope. But eventually he was rewarded by the Dutch government for the duplicate of the design. "The Dutch Perspective Glass", Binoculars star Lippershey could find only increase three times magnification. Early initiative to obtain a patent from the findings presented in the final report to the Dutch Embassy of the Kingdom of Siam, led by King Ekathotsarot.

Diplomatic reports soon spread to Europe, and encourage experimentation by other scientists such as Italian Paolo Sarpi, who received a report in November, or Thomas Harriot of England in 1609, and Galileo Galilei were immediately modify Lippershey telescope. Hans Lippershey holds a lens in front of another lens to enlarge the distance of the object. By installing two lenses in a tube made of wood, Lippershey make the first telescope

New glass making techniques introduced by the Italians in the 1590s, and perhaps some idea of ??combining these lenses have come up glassmaker community. Although people claim that the invention of the telescope and instruments impossible to remain confidential, the early records have been found of a device (like a telescope) Zeeland government stated in a letter to his delegation at the United Netherlands, dated 25 September 1608, which contains the "who is the person who finds new discoveries that can see objects at a distance as if it will be close ". After that, there is also a petition of Jacob Metius of Alkmaar, a city in the north of the Netherlands, who also claimed to be the inventor of the telescope. The third claim is also emerging from Sacharias Janssen, and also became the talk of Middelburg, which appeared a few decades later. Note that there is not sufficient enough to determine who the actual inventor of the telescope. All we can say is that patents Lippershey the beginning of a record of the discovery of the telescope.

Thursday, April 18, 2013

History of Atomic Structure

Niels Bohr was a Danish physicist who considered the greatest physicist of all time, the inventor of the atomic theory of Bohr, inventor of the liquid drop model of the nucleus of the atom, physicists par with Einstein's theory. Bohr is not the first person in the world who discovered the atomic structure or model of the atom. Struktor atom discovered by Rutherford, English physicist, in 1911. But Rutherford atomic structure (structure by Rutherford's atom) is less clear. According to the Rutherford atom consists of a nucleus surrounded by electrons, such as the sun surrounded by planets. But Rutherford can not explain how much distance an electron from the nucleus. Bohr atomic model Rutherford fix. Bohr was the first in the world to apply quantum theory to solve problems of atomic structure. He made important contributions to the development of quantum physics for nearly 50 years.


Biography of Niels Bohr - Atomic Structure Inventor

Biography of Niels Bohr
Bohr was born in Copenhagen, Denmark, on October 7, 1885 and died in Copenhagen also on 18 November 1962 at the age of 77 years. His father Christian Bohr, professor of physiology at the University of Copenhagen. His mother was Ellen Adler Bohr and respected family in the world including Bank in Denmark. Since childhood, Bohr was seen as a bright child who loved to read and study the scientific books.

At the age of 22 years, while still a senior at the University of Copenhagen, Bohr received the gold medal of the Copenhagen Institute of Sciences for his work on the surface tension of water. At the age of 26 years he received a doctorate for his thesis on the metal electrons. Then he went to England to study the atom with Thomson, the discoverer of the electron. After that he went to Manchester to study the atomic structure with Rutherford. In 1922 at the age of 37 years he received the Nobel Prize for physics for his theory of the atom.

Bohr was a great teacher, doctor, director of the Institute of Theoretical Physics and author. Bohr wrote a book about the atomic theory. This book published in 1913. It uses the theory of light beam Planck and Rutherford atomic model to explain the light that appears on the hydrogen atom. According to Bohr, the electrons surrounding the nucleus in specific orbits. There are atoms in the outer orbit and the orbit. The orbit is an electron orbit near the nucleus. Outer orbits could hold more electrons. Electrons in the outer orbits determine the chemical properties of atoms. Sometimes electrons in outer orbit to orbit the jump. At the time of the electrons jump off light. Book by Bohr another example: Spectra and Atomic Structure Theory (1922), Atomic Theory and the Description of Nature (1934), Atomic Physics and Human Knowledge (1958).

Bohr married Margrethe Norlund in 1912. Bohr turned out not miscast. His wife is a suitable companion for him. Of marriage they were blessed with 6 sons but two people died. Managed so that the four gentlemen and even someone who got a position as Bohr and Bohr is changing as the institute director. Bohr was well aware of the dangers and benefits of the atom to mankind. He experienced World War II and how the Hiroshima and Nagasaki atomic bomb destroyed because of overtime. In 1950 he proposed to the United Nations in order to pursue a policy 'open world' to avoid war. The statesmen should exchange information freely, until the states can and will trust and mutual understanding. Bohr's suggestion indicates that in addition to the leading physicists, Bohr's noble spirit and thinking of the welfare of mankind.

History of Modern Theory of Quantum Mechanics

Physicist Max Born was a pure, original German citizen, then be a British citizen. In 1954, Max Born with Walther Bothe he Nobel Prize for physics for his work in the field of quantum. Quantum mechanics is a branch of mathematical physics which gives a description of the motion of electrons, protons, neutrons and subatomic particles (objects smaller than an atom). Born made a statistical study of the wave function. His work is found to replace the theory kuatum Max Plank, German physicist, in 1900.


Max Born - Inventor of Modern Theory of Quantum Mechanics

Max Born
Born was born in Breslau, Germany, on December 11, 1882. Breslau city now called Wroclaw and including the territory of Poland. He died in Göttingen on the 5th of January, 1970, at the age of 88 years. 4 He was educated at the University of Breslau, Heidelberg, Zurich, and Gottingen. He received his doctorate from the University of Gottingen at the age of 25 years (1907). Later he taught in Berlin and Frankfurt am main. At the age of 39 years (1921), he was appointed professor at the University of Gottingen. He taught theoretical physics or pure physics.

In the same year Max Born reformulate the law of conservation of energy or the first law of thermodynamics. He made a precise definition of the quantity of heat. As such, it presents a mathematical statement which is very satisfying for the law. Three expert mathematics at the university of Gottingen Born affect thinking. Them it was David Hilbert, Felix Klein and Hermann Minkowski. In Berlin, Born acquainted and friends with Max Planck and Albert Einstein. As a teacher, Born to inspire the young men who are very intelligent, which later became a mathematician and physicist famous all over the world. They are Enrico Fermi, Werner Heinsenberg, and J. Robert Oppenheimer.

In 1924 Louis de Brogile, French physicist, noted that govern the motion of matter waves of atomic particles. After finding out that Erwin Schrodinger, Austrian physicist, developed a system of mathematical procedures and concepts of physics called wave mechanics. Primarily on the basis of the work of this Schrodinger, Born to conclusions that indicate the possible presence of matter waves elektrondi somewhere. Interpretation (interpretation) Born on Schrodinger wave equation is very important for the new kuatum theory.

At 1926 Werner Karl Heisenberg, Born student and assistant, first formulated the law of the new quantum theory. Born highly skilled in mathematics, soon developed a mathematical theory by using a careful and systematic. The new quantum theory is then known as quantum mechanics. Quantum mechanics is more perfect than the quantum theory of Max Planck.

Max Planck's quantum theory is more perfect than Newtonian mechanics. Newtonian mechanics can not be used to discuss objects as small as atoms. Born is not the person who discovered quantum mechanics. Quantum mechanics discovered by Erwin Schrodinger and Werner Heinsenberg. Born received the Nobel prize for perfect quantum mechanics. Besides perfect quantum mechanics, Born developed the theory of subatomic particle growth. This theory is used to solve problems in atomic particles are scattered. He can explain the dual nature of matter as particles and waves.

In 1933 Hitler become dictator in Germany. He ordered that all Jews be killed. Though Born a Jew, Not wanting to kill Hitler, Born fled to England, German enemy. Born in the UK to get a job as a lecturer at the University of Edinburgh. In 1939 World War II broke out, incoming Born a British citizen. Later he was appointed member of the UK Institute of Science. He retired in 1953 and returned to Germany, to Gottingen. Use for the rest of his life he wrote a book and write a lot of articles. Her work is recorded with the title of Work Choices and published in 1963. He condemned the misuse of science for the sake of war. He argues that the scientists responsible for the use of nuclear energy in war and in peace time.

History Inventors High Pressure Chemical Method

High Pressure Chemical Methods inventor (1874 - 1940) - Carl Bosch was a German chemist, industry entrepreneurs, engineers, chairman of the German Academy of Sciences. Company Bosch produces ammonia and methanol-made artificial. Together with Friedrich Bergius he received the Nobel Prize in chemistry for discovering high-pressure method kimia.Ia born in Cologne on August 27, 1874 and died in Heidelberg (now including the West German region) at the age of 66 years. At age 20 he studied at Charlottenburg for metallurgists and engineers so. Metallurgy is the science and technology that studies logom, metal structure, properties of metals, metal manufacturing processes and so on.


Biography Carl Bosch | Inventors High Pressure Chemical Method

Biography Carl Bosch | Inventors High Pressure Chemical Method
In High school he was disappointed because the subjects which he received only by the sheer experience of the lecturers, not science in the sense now. Then two years later he moved to the University of Leipzig. Here metarlurgi but he did not learn chemistry. In 1889, at the age of 25 years working in Bandische Bosch Aniline-und Soda-Fabrik (BASF) in the city of Ludwigshafen. Manufacturer's name was later changed so l.G. Farbenindustrie AG.

In the company there are three properties that are very menojol Bosch. He studied had continued despite the title engineer. He pushed forward coworkers. He makes long-term plans. He is good at organizing group work. Position in the fast-emerging companies. Within 11 years he managed to occupy the top job at the company. He was chosen to be the president of the company at the age of 35 years (1935).

Approximately in 1900 the world shortage of fertilizer nitrogen. It is made of nitrate fertilizer imported from Chile, South America. But the Chilean nitrate can not meet the world's needs for fertilizer. Though plants need nitrogen or nitrogen. How to make a fertilizer that contains nitrogen?

In 1909 Haber, German chemist, successfully developed the manufacturing process of synthetic ammonia. Ammonia is made from nitrogen and hydrogen. Ratio of 1:3. Chemical formula NH3. But Haber synthetic ammonia can only be made in the laboratory. Then he handed the manufacture of artificial ammonia to Bosch. Bosch produces ammonia then made on a large scale. It happened in 1911. Four years later (1915) the company Bosch oxidize ammonia and nitric acid production. Nitric acid is widely used in the chemical industry to make medicines, dyes, and explosives. In 1923 the company Bosch produces massive artificial methanol. Methanol is the simplest alcohol liquid. Methanol is also called carbinol, wood alcohol, glass alcohol, or methyl alcohol. Synthetic methanol is made by reacting the mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide gases with high pressure.

The mixture is called synthesis gas. Synthesis gas can be made from a variety of waste, waste, waste products, any fuel containing carbon, such as brick, natural gas, and oil, and wood. Methanol is used for fuel, for the motor, as the organic solvent in the manufacture of lacquers and varnishes, in manufacture of formaldehyde for dyes, and as a mendenaturasikan ethanol. For his work with the Bosch Bergius in 1931 received the Nobel Prize. Six years later (1937) Bosch chosen as chairman of the Institute for German Studies, replacing Max Planck.

History of Soekarno, the President of the Republic Indonesia

History SoekarnoIf you hear the name Dr.. (HC) Ir. Soekarno everyone would remember the proclaimer and also the first president of Indonesia. President Sukarno's birth name is actually Koesno Sosrodihardjo, he was born in Surabaya, East Java, on June 6, 1901. If the views of its history, was Indonesia's first President Sukarno, who served in the 1945-1966 period, he also plays an important role for independence of Indonesia from Dutch colonialism. In addition, Sukarno also a digger Pancasila as he who first sparked the concept of the Indonesian state and he himself also is named Pancasila. He is also a Proclaimer of Indonesian Independence (along with Mohammad Hatta) which occurred on August 17, 1945.

Soekarno signed March 11, 1966 Warrant Supersemar controversial, the contents, based on a version of the Army Headquarters issued commissioned Lieutenant-General Suharto to secure and maintain the security of the state and the institution of the presidency. Supersemar the basis Lieutenant General Suharto to dissolve the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI) and replace the members who sit in parliament. Having rejected accountable Provisional People's Consultative Assembly (MPR) at the fourth general assembly in 1967, President Sukarno was dismissed from his post as president of the Special Session of the MPR in the same year and appointed Soeharto as acting President of the Republic of Indonesia.


Biography Childhood & Adolescent Soekarno

Sukarno was born with a father named Raden Soekemi Sosrodihardjo and his mother Ida Ayu Nyoman Rai. The two met when Raden Soekemi who was an elementary school teacher was placed on Natives in Singaraja, Bali. Nyoman Rai is a descendant of a noble Hindu Bali and while Raden Soekemi themselves Muslim. They already have a daughter named Sukarmini before Soekarno was born. When small Soekarno lived with his grandfather, Prince Hardjokromo in Tulung Agung, East Java.

The first time he went to school at Great Tulung until he moved to Mojokerto, following her parents who were assigned in the city. In Mojokerto, her father Sukarno to enter Eerste inlandse School, the school where he worked. Then in June 1911 Sukarno moved to Europeesche Lagere School (ELS) to make it easier to be accepted in Hoogere Burger School (HBS). In 1915, Sukarno had completed his education at ELS and managed to continue to HBS in Surabaya, East Java. It can be accepted at HBS for the help of a friend of his father who named HOS Tjokroaminoto. Tjokroaminoto even gave shelter to Soekarno in the dormitory residence. In Surabaya, Soekarno many met with SI leaders, led Tjokroaminoto organization at the time, such as Alimin, Musso, Dharsono, Haji Agus Salim, and Abdul Muis. Soekarno then active in youth organizations Dharmo Tri Koro formed as an organization of Budi Utomo. Name of the organization then he change to Jong Java (Java Youth) in 1918. In addition, Sukarno also writes in the daily "Oetoesan Indies" led by Tjokroaminoto.

HBS graduate Soerabaja in July 1921, together with a colleague Djoko Asmo force at HBS, Sukarno continued to Technische Hoogeschool te Bandoeng (now ITB) in Bandung majoring in civil engineering in 1921, two months after he left college, but in 1922 signed back and graduated in 1926. Soekarno passed the test engineer on May 25, 1926 and on the 6th Anniversary of TH Bandung on July 3, 1926 she graduated with eighteen other engineers. Prof. Jacob Clay, chairman of the faculty at the time stated "Especially important events for us because there are 3 of them engineers Javanese people". [14] They were Sukarno, Anwari, and Soetedjo, other than that no one else from the Minahasa Alexander Johannes Henricus Ondang. When in Bandung, Sukarno lived at the residence Haji Sanusi who is a member of the SI and sidekick Tjokroaminoto. There he interacted with Ki Hajar Dewantara, Cipto Mangunkusumo, and Dr. Douwes Dekker, who was then the leader of the National Indische Partij organization.


Gait Political Biography of President Sukarno

1. Future National Movement

Soekarno for the first time became famous when he became a member of Jong Java Surabaya branch in 1915. For those organizations that Soekarno nature of Java-centric and just think kebudyaan be a challenge. In the annual plenary meeting held Sukarno Surabaya branch Jong Java tumultuous session with a speech using the Java language ngoko (rough). A month later he sparked a fierce debate by suggesting that Java Jong newspaper published in Malay only, and not in Dutch.

In 1926, Sukarno founded the Algemene Studie Club in London which is the result of inspiration from Dr. Indonesische Study Club. Atopic Dermatitis. This organization became the forerunner of the National Party of Indonesia was established in 1927. Sukarno's PNI activity in causing arrested Netherlands on December 29, 1929 in Yogyakarta and the next day moved to London, was sent to prison for Banceuy. In 1930 he moved to Sukamiskin and in that year he raised a phenomenal pledoi Indonesia Sues (plea), to be released again on December 31, 1931.

In July 1932, Sukarno joined the Party of Indonesia (Partindo), which is a fraction of the PNI. Sukarno was re-arrested in August 1933, and was exiled to Flores. Here, Soekarno almost forgotten by the national figures. But his spirit still burning as implied in every letter to a teacher named Ahmad Hasan Islamic Union.

In 1938 until 1942 Sukarno was exiled to Bengkulu province. Soekarno new free returns during the Japanese occupation in 1942.

2. The Japanese Occupation

At the beginning of the Japanese colonial period (1942-1945), the Japanese government had not noticed the movement of Indonesian figures mainly to "secure" its presence in Indonesia. It looks at the Movement 3A with characters and Mr. Shimizu. Shamsuddin is less popular. But ultimately, the Japanese occupation government attention and at the same time utilizing Indonesian figures such as Sukarno, Mohammad Hatta, and other organizations within each agency and institution to attract the hearts of the Indonesian population. Mentioned in various organizations such as Hokokai Java, Central People's Power (Putera), BPUPKI and PPKI, prominent figures such as Sukarno, Hatta, Ki Hajar Dewantara, KH Mas Mansour, and others mentioned and look so active. And finally national leaders to work together with the government to reach the Japanese occupation of Indonesia's independence, even though some are doing underground movement like Sutan Syahrir and Amir Sjarifoeddin because they think Japan is a dangerous fascist.

President Sukarno himself, during a speech before the opening of the reading of the text of the proclamation of independence, saying that even though we are cooperating with Japan in fact we believe and believe and rely on their own strength. He was active in the preparation of business independence Indonesia, among which are formulated Pancasila, the 1945 Constitution, and the fundamental basis of the Indonesian government, including formulating the text of the proclamation of Independence. He was persuaded to step aside to Rengasdengklok.

In 1943, Japanese Prime Minister Hideki Tojo invited the Indonesian leader Sukarno, Mohammad Hatta, and Ki Bagus Hadikoesoemo to Japan and received by Emperor Hirohito. Even the emperor gave imperial star (Holy Ratna) for the three Indonesian leaders. The awarding of the star makes the Japanese occupation government was surprised, because it means that the three Indonesian leaders was considered the Japanese imperial family itself. In August 1945, he was invited by Marshal Terauchi, the Army leadership in the Southeast Asian region Dalat Vietnam who later stated that the proclamation of Indonesian independence is a matter for the Indonesian people. But his involvement in the organization of agencies established by the Japanese to make Sukarno was accused by the Netherlands in collaboration with Japan, among others, in the case of romusha.

3. Revolutionary War period

Soekarno with national figures begin to prepare themselves before the proclamation of independence of the Republic of Indonesia. After hearing Investigation Agency Business BPUPKI Preparation of Indonesian Independence, Small Committee consisting of eight people (official), Small Committee consisting of nine / nine committee (which produces the Jakarta Charter) and the Preparatory Committee for Indonesian Independence PPKI, Soekarno-Hatta Indonesia State founded based on Pancasila and the 1945 Constitution.

After seeing Marshal Terauchi in Dalat, Vietnam, Rengasdengklok events happened on the date August 16, 1945; Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta were persuaded by the youth to go away to boarding troops Map Rengasdengklok Defenders of the Homeland. Youth leaders who persuaded among others Soekarni, Wikana, Singgih and Chairul Saleh. The youths demanded that Sukarno and Hatta proclaimed Indonesian independence immediately, because in Indonesia happened vacuum of power. This is because the Japanese had surrendered and Allied troops had not arrived. But Sukarno, Hatta and the figure declined on the grounds waiting for clarity about the Japanese surrender. Another reason is that developing the right moment to Soekarno establish the independence of the Republic of Indonesia which is chosen on August 17, 1945 when it coincided with Ramadan, the Muslim holy month which is believed to be the first month of the revelation of the Muslims to the Prophet Muhammad, Al Qur-an. On 18 August 1945, Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta PPKI be appointed by the President and Vice President of the Republic of Indonesia. On August 29, 1945 on the appointment of a president and vice-president confirmed by KNIP. On 19 September 1945 at Soekarno authority to settle without bloodshed Ikada Field event where 200,000 people of Jakarta will clash with Japanese troops were still armed to the teeth.

On arrival Allies (AFNEI) led by Lieutenant General. Sir Philip Christison, Christison finally recognized Indonesian sovereignty de facto, after a meeting with President Soekarno. President Soekarno also try to resolve the crisis in Surabaya. However, due to provocation launched by troops NICA (Netherlands) to hitchhike Allies (under the British), burst events 10 November 1945 in Surabaya and the death of Brigadier General AWS Mallaby. Because many provocations in Jakarta at the time, President Sukarno eventually move the capital of the Republic of Indonesia from Jakarta to Yogyakarta. Followed by the vice president and other senior state officials.

Position of President Soekarno in 1945 is the position of the President as head of government and head of state (presidential / single executive). During the revolution, the system of government changed to semipresidensiil / double executive. President Sukarno as head of state and Syahrir as Prime Minister / Head of Government. It happened because of the vice president's edict No. X, and the government announcement in November 1945 of a political party. It is taken to the Republic of Indonesia is considered a more democratic country.

Although the system of government changed, at the time of the revolution, the position of President Sukarno remains the most important, especially in the face of the Madiun Affair in 1948 and when the Dutch Military Aggression II that led to President Soekarno, Vice President Mohammad Hatta and several senior government officials detained the Netherlands. Although existing Emergency Government of the Republic of Indonesia (Emergency Government) with the chairman Sjafruddin Prawiranegara, but in fact the international and domestic situation still acknowledge that Soekarno-Hatta is the real leader of Indonesia, only policies that can resolve the dispute between Indonesia and the Netherlands.

4. Indonesian Independence period

After Sovereignty Recognition (Government of the Netherlands mentioned as delivery Sovereignty), President Sukarno was appointed as the President of the Republic of Indonesia (RIS) and Mohammad Hatta was appointed as prime minister of RIS. Office of President of the Republic of Indonesia submitted to Mr. Assaat, which became known as the Java-Yogyakarta Indonesia. However, due to the demands of the people of Indonesia who want to return to the unity of the country, then on August 17, 1950, RIS again changed to the Republic of Indonesia and President Sukarno became President. Mr Assaat mandate as acting President handed back to Ir. Sukarno. Official position of President Sukarno was president of the constitutional, but in fact government policy after consulting him.

Soekarno-Hatta Duet myth is quite popular and more powerful among the people compared to the prime minister head of government. Rise and fall of the cabinet which is famous as "fledgling cabinet" led President Soekarno less trusting multiparty system, even calling it a "disease of the party". Not infrequently, he also intervene to mediate conflicts within the military which also affected the rise and fall of the cabinet. October 17, 1952 such events and events in the Air Force. Sukarno and John F. Kennedy

President Soekarno also provides many ideas in the international world. Concern over the fate of the peoples of Asia and Africa, still not independent, yet have the right to self-determination, causing the president Sukarno, in 1955, took the initiative to hold the Asian-African Conference in Bandung, which produced Dasa Sila. Known as the Bandung Asian-African Capital. Inequality and conflict due to a "time bomb" that left the western countries are still concerned that branded imperialism and colonialism, inequality and fears of the emergence of a nuclear war that changed civilization, injustice international agencies in conflict resolution is also a concern. With President Josip Broz Tito (Yugoslavia), Gamal Abdel Nasser (Egypt), Mohammad Ali Jinnah (Pakistan), U Nu, (Burma) and Jawaharlal Nehru (India) he held Asian-African Conference that led to the Non-Aligned Movement. Thanks to the services, many Asian and African countries that gained independence. But unfortunately, there are still many who experience prolonged conflict until today because of the injustice in problem solving, which is still controlled by powerful states or superpowers. Thanks to this addition, many people from the African region will not be forgotten when Soekarno remember or know about Indonesia. To carry out an independent foreign policy-active in the international world, President Sukarno visited many countries and met with leaders of the country. Among them was Nikita Khrushchev (Soviet Union), John Fitzgerald Kennedy (United States), Fidel Castro (Cuba), Mao Tse Tung (PRC).


End of Life Biography of President Sukarno

Soekarno health has begun to decline since August 1965. [26] Previously, he was declared suffering from kidney problems and had undergone treatment in Vienna, Austria in 1961 and 1964. [26] Prof. Dr.. K. Fellinger of the Faculty of Medicine, University of Vienna suggests that Sukarno left kidney removed, but he rejected it and prefer traditional medicine. He still survive for 5 years before finally died on Sunday, June 21, 1970 at Army Hospital (Central Army Hospital) Gatot Subroto, Jakarta with status as political prisoners. Soekarno's body was moved from the guesthouse to the Army Hospital Yasso owned by Ratna Sari Dewi. Stated before his death, a routine inspection of Sukarno was performed by Dr. Mahar Mardjono which is a member of the presidential medical team. Not long later issued a communiqué signed by the Chairman of the Medical Prof. Dr.. Mahar Mardjono along with Vice Chairman Major General Dr. (TNI AD) Rubiono Kertopati.

Although Sukarno had requested that he be buried in the Palace Slate, Bogor, but the government of President Soeharto chose Blitar, East Java, as the burial place of Sukarno. It was established by Presidential Decree No.. 44 in 1970. The bodies were taken to Blitar Soekarno day after his death and was buried the next day next to her mother's grave. Soekarno funeral led by armed forces commander Gen. M. Panggabean as inspector of the ceremony. The government then set a seven-day mourning period.